Isivikelo Esihlala Njalo: Umlando Nokuziphendukela Kwemvelo Kwezivikelo Ezimbaxa - mbili Zokuvikelwa Komthetho WaseMelika

Isimiso sengozi ephindwe kabili singenye yesivikelo esingathandeki kakhulu emthetho wezephula-mthetho waseMelika. Siqinisekisa ukuthi akekho umuntu oyozanywa kaningi ngenxa yecala elifanayo okuthiwa liyicala, isivikelo esiklanyelwe ukuvimbela ukuphamba kukahulumeni, ukuvikela isithunzi somuntu, nokuqinisekisa ukuthi inqubo engokomthetho iyokugcina. Lesihloko sikhomba izimpande ezijulile zengozi eziwumphumela wemisuka yaso eqinile yamaNgisi, ngokufakwa kwayo eSiphendulweni Sesihlanu, ezincazelweni sanamuhla esiyinkimbinkimbi esisaqhubeka silungisa imingcele yaso.

Ukuqonda izingozi eziphindwe kabili kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofunda inqubo yobugebengu baseMelika, umthetho womthetho-sisekelo, noma isigaba esibanzi samalungelo abantu. Akuwona umthetho ozimele kodwa imfundiso ephilayo yokuthi izinkantolo ziye zayicwengisisa ekuphenduleni izinto ezintsha ezingokoqobo, kusukela ekuhloleni nasekunxuseni ukuhlanganiswa kombuso nohulumeni. Ngokuhlola umlando wayo nokuziphendukela kwemvelo, sizuza ukuqonda indlela umthetho olinganisela ngayo isithakazelo sikahulumeni ekumangaleleni ubugebengu bomuntu ekutheni nelungelo lakhe lokugcina kanye nenkululeko ekuhlukunyezweni ngokuphindaphindiwe.

Umsuka Womthetho Ovamile WesiNgisi

Umqondo wengozi ephindwe kabili awuzange wasungulwe ngokugcwele kusukela ekusungulweni kweMelika. Uhlu lwawo lozalo lwafinyelela emuva eNgilandi enkathini ephakathi, lapho umqondo wokuthi umuntu akufanele abekwe icala elifanayo wavela kancane kancane empikiswaneni phakathi kwegunya lobukhosi namalungelo avamile. Izinkantolo zakuqala zamaNgisi zaqaphela isicelo esaziwa ngokuthi [ u-aurefois Conrective [ (ungasohlulwa) kanye nesahlulelwayo [[FLT] isolifos sikhombisi [[] (ngaphambili]] icala), ivumela ummangalelwa ukuba athole isigwebo sesibili ngokubonisa ukuthi kakade sasehlulelwe ngecala elifanayo.

Ngekhulu leshumi nesikhombisa leminyaka, umthetho ovamile waseNgilandi wawusuveze umthetho onzima ngokumelene nomonakalo ophindwe kabili, nakuba wawungekho nhlobo. Icala elibi likaSir Thomas More ngo 1535, ngokwesibonelo, lalibonisa ukuwohloka kwesimiso lapho ezombangazwe ziwukweqisa emasikweni angokomthetho. Noma kunjalo, umqondo wawuthathelwe indawo njengengxenye yefa elikhulu lamaNgisi lamalungelo, kuhlanganise nesiqinisekiso sikaMagna Carta sokuthi akukho muntu okhululekile ojeziswa ngaphandle kwesahlulelo esingokomthetho sontanga yakhe. Lapho amaRoma awela i-Atlantic, ayephethe lamasiko angokomthetho.

IMelika Yobukoloni NeSichibiyelo Sesihlanu

E-Melika yekoloni, isivikelo esiphindwe kabili sasikhona ngokuyinhloko ngomthetho ovamile ongekho ngokomthetho ocacile noma izinhlelo zomthetho-sisekelo. Nokho, amakoloni amaningana azama isiqinisekiso esibhaliwe. Ngokwesibonelo, iMassachusetts Body of Liberties ka 1641, yamemezela ukuthi "akekho umuntu ozozanywa kabili ngenxa yobugebengu obufanayo" lamazwi okuqala abonisa umuzwa okhulayo wokuthi amandla okuqulwa kumelwe alinganiselwe.

Ngemva kweNguquko, lesi sizwe esisha sabhekana nomsebenzi wokwakha uhulumeni kahulumeni onamagunya ahlukene. ISiphakamiso samaLungelo, esagunyazwa ngo-1791, sasihloselwe ukucindezela lowo hulumeni. IsiHlanzi sesihlanu sasihlanganisa isisho sengozi ephindwe kabili emibhalweni yaso yokugcina: "Akekho umuntu ozobekwa engozini efanayo yokufakelwa ukuphila noma isiqu." Le nkulumo yathathwa ngokuqondile emthethweni wamaNgilandi, kodwa injongo yayo eqondile yayizothatha amakhulu eminyaka ukuba ichazwe ngokugcwele.

Kubalulekile ukuqaphela ukuthi amagama ezingozi ezimbili ekuqaleni ayesebenza kuhulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni. Kuze kube ngo-1969, kuBenton v. Maryland, ingabe iNkantolo Ephakeme yafaka isigqebhezana esimelene nezifunda ngeSichibiyelo seshumi nane. Lesinqumo senza ukuba isivikelo sibe ilungelo elibalulekile elisebenza kuyo yonke indawo e-United States, landisa kakhulu ukufinyelela kwaso.

Izimfundiso Ezingokomthetho Eziyinhloko Namacala Avelele

Imfundiso Yababusi Abahlukene

Enye yempikiswano enkulu kakhulu .(ne) ukuchazwa kwezingozi ezimbili imfundiso ehlukile. Ngaphansi kwalomthetho, uhulumeni kahulumeni nombuso ngamunye kubhekwa njengokwahlulelwa. Ngakho - ke, isenzo esisodwa esiphula kokubili umthetho kahulumeni nombuso singamangalelwa yinkosi ngayinye ngaphandle kokukhipha izingozi eziphindwe kabili. INkantolo Ephakeme yaqinisekisa lesimiso United States v. Lanza (1922) futhi kamuva Bartus v. I-Illinonia [195]] [199] ne[FLT] [FL:]

Umqondo onengqondo uwukuthi ukuziphatha okufanayo kungahlanganisa izono ezimbili ezihlukene ezingqubuzaneni ezimbili zomthetho. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi lokhu kungaholela ekumangalelweni okulandelanayo okucindezelayo, ikakhulukazi ezicabeni eziphakeme. INkantolo Ephakeme yaqinisekisa futhi lemfundiso ku- Greggy v. United States [2029], iphethe leyo-clex isekela ukusebenza kwayo okuqhubekayo, naphezu kokukhula kwayo ifuna ukuba ishiywe.

Lapho Ingozi Igcotshwa

Isivikelo sobungozi obuphindwe kabili siqala nje lapho ingozi iqala ukuba "iboshelwe" ukuqulwa kwecala labahluleli, izingozi uma ijaji libekwa futhi lifungwe. Icala lasebhentshi linamathela lapho ufakazi wokuqala efukwa. Lesi sikhathi singanquma ukuthi icala lesibili liyavinjelwa noma livunyelwe.

Crist v. Bretz (1978]), iNkantolo Ephakeme yaphetha ngokuthi umthetho kahulumeni wokunamathela usebenza ngokufanayo ezizweni ngeSichibiyelo seshumi nane. Lesi sinqumo saqinisekisa ukuvumelana ekuchazeni isikhathi esibucayi lapho isihlangu sengozi ephindwe kabili sinyuka.

Ukungemthetho Nokukhanga

Kwenzekani uma icala liphela ngaphambi kwesikhathi ngenxa yecala elingalungile noma uma ummangalelwa enxusa isiqinisekiso ngokuphumelelayo? Amampendulo akhona acacile. Ummangalelwa angaphinde abekwe ngemva kokwahlulela okungalungile uma umahluleli ememezela amaphutha ngenxa "yesidingo"" cishe njengejaji elifile noma impoqo ye-procediastry. Ecala elivamile United States v. Perez [1824], iNkanto ephakeme yakholelwa ukuthi ijaji elilengayo liyisibonelo esivelele sokubonakala njengesidingo, ivumela ukuqulwa futhi kungaphulwa ngaphandle kokwephula izingozi eziphindwe kabili.

Kodwa uma umshushisi ebangela ukumangalela ngephutha ngamabomu ukuze kuzuze inzuzo yobuqili, ukuqulwa kabusha kungavinjelwa. Orogon v. Kennedy [1982], iNkantolo imisa ibhaxa eliphezulu: kuphela uma umshushisi ezama ukuvusa icebo elingalungile, iyakubeka izingozi eziphindwe kabili ukuqulwa kohlangothi olubili. Lendinganiso elinganiselwe ivikela isithakazelo sikahulumeni ekulinganisweni okungalawuleki kakhulu.

Uma ummangalelwa enxusa ukukhokhwa kwecala futhi ephumelela, umthetho ovamile uthi ukwahlulela kabusha kuvunyelwe, njengoba ingozi yokuqala ingakapheli. Nokho, uMthetho-sisekelo wenqabela ukuqulwa uma inkantolo ye-appellate ithola ubufakazi obunganele ukusekela isinqumo. [Ku] uBursks v. United States [19978]], iNkantolo ikholelwa ukuthi ukuguqulwa okusekelwe ebufakazini obunganele kuyalingana nokungakhohliswa, kanjalo inqaba. Lokhu kuqinisa ukuvalwa kokugcina kwe-arevs, ngisho noma kuguquliwe ekudlulisweni.

Ukujeziswa Ngezikhathi Eziningi Nokuvivinywa Kwezingcingo

Isilinganiso sengozi ephindwe kabili sivikela futhi ekujezisweni okuhlukahlukene ngecala elifanayo. Umbuzo oyinhloko uwukuthi amalungiselelo amabili angokomthetho achaza amacala afanayo noma ahlukene. INkantolo Ephakeme yamisa ukuhlolwa okuvamile shburger v. United States[ (1932]): uma umthetho ngamunye ufuna ubufakazi bento eyodwa omunye angayisebenzisi, khona - ke wona angamacala ahlukene, futhi isijeziso esiphindaphindiwe. Uma omunye umthetho uhlanganisa icala elincane, ukumangalelwa kokubili kuveza ukulahlekelwa okuphindiwe kabili.

Lokhu kuhlola kuye kwasetshenziswa ezindaweni eziningi, kusukela ekushushumbiseni izidakamizwa kuya ekukhwabaniseni. Nokho, iNkantolo iye yaqaphela futhi ukuthi izishaya - mthetho zingagunyaza ngokusobala izijeziso eziningi zokuziphatha okufanayo ngaphansi kwemithetho ehlukene, uma nje kusobala ukuthi zihlose ukubheka ukuziphatha njengecala elihlukene. Leso nhloso iyimpikiswano yokuklanywa kwemithetho, hhayi ukugunyazwa ngomthetho-mthetho.

I - “lea Bargain ” Ne - bearchy Embaxa - mbili

Icala elikhulu lobugebengu lixazululwa ngokunxusa, hhayi ngokuqulwa kwecala. Ingabe izingozi eziphindwe kabili zivikela ummangalelwa onxusa icala? Ngokuvamile, isicelo sobugebengu ngokwaso sisebenza njengesiqinisekiso, futhi singaba necala noma sixazululwe futhi singaba namkhawulo. Rickets v. Adamson[FLD:1] [1987] [iNkantolo], ikhombathi ikholelwa ukuthi ummangalelwa ophula isivumelwano angaphinde abekwe icala, ngisho noma isivumelwano sinciphe.

Omunye umehluko obalulekile umthetho owenqabela ukuqulwa komthetho ngemva kokuba ummangalelwa esejeziswe kakade ngenxa yokuziphatha okufanayo eqenjini elihlukile. Ngokwesibonelo, uma umuntu ekhululiwe ecaleni, ngeke kamuva abekwe icala elincane. Lowo mthetho wamiswa ngokuqinile u-Lugree v. United States (1957), eyayithi isho ukuvala icala ezinqingweni ezinkulu.

Izincazelo Zanamuhla Nempikiswano Yesikhathi Esidlule

Ukuhlelwa Kwemali Ehlala Abantu Nezigwebo Zemali

Enye yezindawo eziphikiswana kakhulu emthetho wanamuhla oyingozi ephindwe kabili ukuthi ukulahlekelwa impahla esetshenziswayo emsebenzini wobugebengu noma ezinye izijeziso ezingezona ezobugebengu zingaba isijeziso sesibili. United States v. Ursery [1996]], iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi ukulahlekelwa impahla esetshenziswayo eqenjini lobugebengu akuyona isijeziso futhi kanjalo akuvusi zingozi eziphindwe kabili. Lesinqumo sanquma ukuhlukana ezinkantolo eziphansi, kodwa abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukulahlekelwa yimpahla elahlekileyo kungasetshenziswa, ikakhulukazi uma inani lempahla elahlekileyo libangwa kakhulu.

Ngokufanayo, ukujeziswa kwemithetho enjengelayisense yomsebenzi noma ukukhishwa kwezivumelwano zikahulumeni ngokuvamile akubhekwa njengesijeziso ngezinjongo eziphindwe kabili, ngisho noma zilandela isiqinisekiso sobugebengu sokuziphatha okufanayo. INkantolo iye yasebenzisa ukuhlola okuningi ukuze ihlukanise phakathi kwesijeziso somphakathi nesezigebengu, igxila ekutheni imvume isebenza yini ekulungiseni, ingayikhokhi.

Ukuqhubeka Kwemivubukulo Nokubulala Okukabili

Ukusetshenziswa kwengozi ephindwe kabili ekwahluleleni kwentsha kuye kwavela ngokuphawulekayo. Breed v. Jones [1875], iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi ukufushaniswa kwentsha ubuhlongandlebe kungu "ukuphanga kwecala" okuthi kamuva kubekwe icala elifanayo. INkantolo yaveza ukuthi ingozi yokulahlekelwa yinkululeko eqenjini ewuntanga iyingozi ngokwaneleyo ukuvuma isivikelo esiphindwe kabili. Lecala laphawula inyathelo elikhulu ekuqapheleni amalungelo omthetho-mthetho wentsha abhekene nesenzo sombuso.

Ukukhuliswa Kwesigwebo Nemithetho Yokubulala

Izingozi eziphindwe kabili azithinti umahluleli ukuba abeke isigwebo esinzima kakhulu esisekelwe ezinkolelweni zangaphambili, ngisho noma izinkolelo zangaphambili zaziyindaba yamacala angaphambili. Izimiso zokuqulwa kwecala zivamile futhi ziye zasekelwa njengendlela engokomthetho yokusebenzisa amandla omthetho. Nokho, iNkantolo iye yathi uhulumeni akanakuveza ubufakazi bokuqulwa kwecala langaphambili ngenxa yezinjongo eziphansi uma lokho kuqiniseka kwakungagcini ngesikhathi sobugebengu bakuqala. Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni akasebenzisi isikhalo esingokomthetho njengesikhali sokuvikela isiqinisekiso esisha.

Izinguquko Ezingase Zibe Khona

Imfundiso ezimele ilokhu iyisici esigxekwa kakhulu somthetho wanamuhla oyingozi ephindwe kabili. IJaji Ginsburg, ephikisana [ku- GEggy v. United States, yaphikisa ukuthi lemfundiso ilulaza inani eliyinhloko lengozi ephindwe kabili ngoba ivumela uhulumeni ukuba "azame ukuhlukanisa kabili ubugebengu obufanayo" ngokumane ahlukanise igunya phakathi kohulumeni nohulumeni. Amanye amazwe aye azama ukulinganisela lemfundiso ngomthetho, kodwa umthetho kahulumeni uphoqa imizamo enjalo. Imithetho yokuvimbela umthetho ukuba ulwe kabusha lomkhuba eminyakeni yamuva, kodwa akukho sinyathelo somthetho esiye saphumelela.

Enye indawo yempikiswano ihlanganisa "ubukhosi obuvamile" ngaphandle kokuquliswa ngokulandelana kwezikhulu ezimbili ezihlukene. Nakuba iNkantolo ePhakeme ingasibhekisi ngokuqondile lesosimo, izinkantolo eziphansi ngokuvamile ziye zasebenzisa umqondo ohlukile wababusi ukuze zivumele ukuqulwa kwecala ngezindawo eziningi ngenxa yokuziphatha okufanayo. Lokhu kungadala ukulandisa okungahleleki futhi kuphakamise izinkathazo ezinkulu, ikakhulukazi lapho amazwe ehlela ukuphenya kwawo.

Imibono Yomhlaba Wonke

Isivikelo esiyingozi esiphindwe kabili siyahluka emhlabeni wonke. Amazwe amaningi, kuhlanganise neCanada neUnited Kingdom, awalandeli imfundiso ehlukile yezikhulu. E-European Union, isimiso se- amabhine ku-imem ngokuvamile afaka umshushisi wesibili wesenzo esifanayo lapho isahlulelo sokugcina sesikhishwe yinoma yimuphi uhulumeni. I-United States ihlala ivuma ngokungenakungatshazwa ukumangalelwa okukahulumeni, iqiniso eliye ladonsa ukunakekela komthetho owesizwe kanye nolwezehlulele.

Ukuqonda lezi zindlela zamazwe ngamazwe kungazisa izinguquko ezingase zishintshe emthethweni waseMelika. Ezinye izazi zomthetho zihlongoze umthetho kahulumeni ozovimbela ukumangalelwa kwecala ngemva kokumangalelwa kwezwe ngenxa yokuziphatha okufanayo, ngaphandle kokuba isithakazelo sikahulumeni sinamandla kakhulu. Abanye baye baphikisa ngokuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme kufanele ilawule inqgobo v. United States futhi basekela ukuthi impoqo ephindwe kabili ngokwayo ivimbela ukuqulwa okulandelanayo kwecala likahulumeni.

Isiphetho

Inombolo yezingozi ezimbili ihlala iyisivikelo esibalulekile esimisweni somthetho womthetho waseMelika. Ivimbela uhulumeni ekusebenziseni ingcebo yakhe enkulu ukuze wehlise abamangalelwa ekuqulweni okuphindiwe, ihlonipha ukuphela kwezahlulelo, futhi isekela isimiso sokuthi umuntu akumelwe aphoqelelwe ukuphila ngaphansi kosongo oluqhubekayo lokubulawa. Nokho njengoba lesi sihloko sibonise, isigqebhezana asisona isithiyo esiphelele. Ukusebenza kwakhe kushintsha imithetho yezobuchwepheshe yokunamathela, incazelo yecala elifanayo, kanye nencazelo ye-statimente yombusi ophethe.

Kubafundi nabafundisi bomthetho-mthetho, izingozi eziphindwe kabili zinikeza ukuhlola okucebile kwezendaba ngendlela umbhalo womthetho-sisekelo omfushane ongaveza ngayo amakhulu eminyaka okuchaza. Ukuhlanganisa phakathi kokwethembeka komlando, isidingo esisebenzayo, nemibono esekelwe ekuqondeni kobulungisa kuyaqhubeka kulawula lemfundiso. Njengoba izinhlobo ezintsha zokumangalela . Zifana namacala kahulumeni ahlukahlukene noma amabutho ahlangene emisebenzi kahulumeni, jzume, izinkantolo ziyobizwa ukuba zilungise imingcele futhi.

Ekugcineni, isivikelo sengozi ephindwe kabili asisona nje umthetho wendabuko; siwuphawu lwesibopho esijulile kuhulumeni olinganiselwe. Iqinisekisa ukuthi ngemva kokuba umbuso ube nethuba eligcwele nelingenabulungisa lokubonisa icala, kumelwe ume phansi. Lobobobo kuzimisela kusebaluleke kakhulu namuhla njengalapho iSichibiyelo sesihlanu siqala ukusungulwa.