Indima yokuqulwa kwecala ekulolongeni izinhlangano zamalungelo omphakathi nokushintsha kwezenhlalo kuyinkimbinkimbi. Njengesisekelo sobulungisa bentando yeningi, isimiso sabahluleli sibeka izakhamuzi ezivamile esikhungweni sokwenza izinqumo ezingokomthetho, sizinika amandla okuqinisa nokubekela imingcele yezenhlalakahle. Kuwo wonke umlando waseMelika, amajaji aye aba izinkundla lapho ukungezwani kobuhlanga, ubulili, ubufana, nesigaba kuye kwadlalwa khona ngaphandle kwezeluleko, ngezinye izikhathi kuqhubekisela phambili ukulingana. Ukuqonda lelifa elihlukene kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela inqubo ehlangene ethonye ngayo amalungelo omphakathi.

Umsuka Womlando Wokulingwa KwamaJury Empi Yamalungelo Abantu

Ilungelo lokuqulwa kwecala libekwe eSichibiyelweni seSihlangu sesithupha futhi ekuqaleni kwathathwa njengesivikelo kuhulumeni ophakele. ERepublic yakuqala, amajaji asebenza njengesehlo emandleni omphathi nokwahlulela, avumela imiphakathi ukuba ichaze imithetho ngezindinganiso zendawo. Kodwa leso simiso esifanayo singazihlukanisa zombili izindlela. Phakathi nenkathi yobugqila, amajaji aseNingizimu agunyaza amaKhomu angaphambili kanye nemithetho yezigqila ebodwayo esemthethweni esemthethweni esemthethweni esemthethweni esemthethweni esemthethweni esemthethweni engu-18. Bavuma ukuthi i-FLT:3], ijelo labo abasiza ababalekayo. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, ezindaweni zaseNyakatho, amajaji ayebo agcina i-Hlubi ezindaweni ezithile ze-Fugi awenzile.

Ngemva kweMpi Yomphakathi nokuqanjwa kwe- Thitreth kanye Firenteth Isichibiyeli [, ukuqulwa kwecala kwaba yindawo yokulwa amaMelika ase-Afrika asanda kukhululeka. [[FLT:] Klux Klan Act kwavumela ukuqulwa kwemithetho yalabo abaphuca amalungelo abo, kodwa izinhlu zendawo ngokuvamile zenqaba ukumangalela abamhlophe abamangalelwa. [183] [FLT:] Embulukeni [FLT], lapho iNkakhulu leNkathi yenze khona isigaba somthetho, ibonise khona indlela yokulawula izakhamuzi, kodwa izikhulumela izakhamuzi zendawo ezazingamelelwe ngayo. Ezimashumini amashumi eminyaka ayisithupha asebenza ngokulinganayo, i-Anbown.[FLT] , i-oct: , i-ston amashumi amashumi amashumi amashumi amashumi eenye amashumi anye anye amnyama amnyama abheke amnyama a

Ukuqulwa Kwamacala KaJury Nenhlangano Yanamuhla Yamalungelo Abantu

Inhlangano yamalungelo omphakathi yekhulu lama-20 yathembela kakhulu kukho kokubili ukuqulwa kwecala kanye nesenzo esiqondile, kodwa ukuqulwa kwecala kwaba nendima enkulu ekudaleni ukungabi nabulungisa nasekubangeleni umbono womphakathi. Mhlawumbe akukho ndaba eqokomisa umjikelezo onzima wazo zonke izigebengu ezimhlophe kunaleyo [izeziqubumo] ze-Scottro Boys [ [1] ngo-1931]. Abamnyama abamnyama bamangalelwa ngokungeyiphutha ukuthi babamba abesifazane ababili abamhlophe esitimeleni e-Alabama. Naphezu kobufakazi bezokwelapha bokuthi akukho ukudlwengulwa kwakwenzekile, bonke abamhlophe abalahlwa bonke abanecala abayisishiya isigwebo esiyisishiya icala. Icala ladonsa ukunakekela kwesizwe futhi laholela ekunqumeni okuvelele okungumthetho: [FLD [F].[3][4], njengoba izakhamuzi ze-Expond], njengoba izakhamuzi ezinguqualiwe, kanye nezingume, izikhulu zaseMelika ezingu, zingekho zishoshoshone, njengoba zinjalo,

Elinye icala eligawuliwe kwakuyi-J.W. Milam noRoy Bryant ngenxa yokubulawa kwe-Emmett Till. Amadoda amabili amhlophe azamazwa eMississippi phambi kwelungu lonke elingumsizi wejaji, elawakhulula ngemva kwehora lokuhlola, futhi lafaka ubufakazi obungaqondile bokuthi ashaya futhi adubula umfana omdala oneminyaka engu 14. Isinqumo sashaqisa isizwe futhi saba isikhalo esikhuthaza ukuqubuka kwamalungelo abantu. Umama kaTill wayebambelele emngcwabeni ovulekile, nezithombe zomzimba wakhe ocwinyolwe, kanye nokuhlekwa kobulungisa enkantolo, kwasiza ukusekela [[FFON] [F] [FOT] [5]

Ukulingwa Njengezisulu Zokufuna Umthetho

Ukuqulwa kwecala likaJury kwafeza indima ekufuneni amalungelo okuvota. Ekuqaleni kwawo-1960, izisebenzi zamalungelo omphakathi eNingizimu zaziboshwa njalo ngenxa "yokuhlasela ukuthula" noma "ukudlulisa" phakathi nemishini yokuvota. Ukuqulwa kwazo, ngokuvamile phambi kwemikhankaso eqinile emhlophe, kwaphumela ezinkolelweni ezahehayo kamuva. Isambatho sezezindaba esivelayo saqokomisa ukungaqondi kokuvinjelwa kokuvinjelwa kwemisebenzi yokudla kwasemini nokuvimbela ukubhalisa ivota. [[FLT:] [FLT: 0] I-75] Selmad ukuya eMontgory [[[[FLT: 1]] futhi izibalo zonyazomthetho ezibonisa ubandlululo [[FLT:] [FLT] [FFL:] [FOLT] [5]

Kubalulekile ukuqaphela ukuthi akuwona wonke amalungelo omphakathi anqotshwa ngezinqumo zejaji. Brown v. Ibhodi yezemfundo (1954) isinqumo kwakuyisinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme, hhayi icala lejaji. Kodwa izimpikiswano ezingokomthetho eBrown ezakhiwa enkantolo zangaphambili zaqala ngokungemthetho ukubekela inselele ukuthatha isithuthi nezikole. Ngokwesibonelo, ngo- 1946, icala leNkanto ePhakathi uMorgan v. Virginia yahlasela ukuvinjwa kwecala emabhasini asenyakatho.[FLT] Icala elaqala lapho u-Irene Morgan eboshwe ngenxa yokwenqaba ukubeka isihlalo sakhe ebhasini laseGreyhoul. Icala lakhe lalingelo lokusingatha icala elingokomthetho kamuva.

Ngalé Kohlanga: Uvivinyo LobuJury Kumalungelo Abesifazane Ne - LGBTQ+ Ukulingana

Ithonya lamacala abahluleli lidlulela ngalé kobulungisa bobuhlanga. Abashisekeli babesifazane ekhulwini le-19 basebenzisa ukuqulwa kwecala ukuze bavivinye ukukhishwa kwabo enkantolo. Ngo-1872, SUSAN B. Anthony[ waboshwa ngenxa yokuvota kuhulumeni wobumongameli. Ukuqulwa kwakhe phambi kwejaji labesilisa, yena akavunyelwanga ukufakazela ngoba wayengowesifazane, esolwe ekumangalelweni futhi elungile. Umahluleli wayala abahluleli ukuba bafumane icala lakhe linecala, isinqumo esicwathile. Nakuba alahlekelwa, ukuquliswa okukhulu kwendaba futhi waba yindawo yokuhlangana komphakathi. Ngokufanayo, e-1913131, e-FFOL [F] [FF] [5] futhi abanye ababoshelwa abanye ababoshelwa ngokuboshwa yi-Whide.[N]

Eqenjini le-LGBTQ+ amalungelo, ukuqulwa kwecala lejaji kuye kwafeza indima elula kodwa ebaluleke kakhulu. Nakuba imithetho ephawulayo enjenge bergefell v. Hodges (2015]) yavela eNkantolo Ephakeme, amacala angaphambili ayehilela izinqumo zejaji ezindabeni ezinjengobandlululo lomsebenzi nokuzonda ubugebengu. Ngokwesibonelo, ekulingweni kwango 1993 kwababulali Brandonana [ (okugqugquzele ifilimu [[FLT:]]] [iinja]] uDot Cry [FLT] [FLT]] [FF:5]) [irks , ibocle izigwebo zomthetho womthetho owembulelene wobucala wakwayo) kodwa isigwebo sokubulala abantu abaningi ngokujeza izigwebo.

Indlela UJury Asola Ngayo Ukushintsha Kwezenhlalo: Ama - mechanitor Ne - Psychology

UJury uveza izinqumo ezithinta ushintsho lwezenhlalo ngezinqubo eziningi ezihlangene. Okokuqala, bathumela uphawu olunamandla [[FLT: 0] oluthiyayo . Lapho ijaji libopha iphoyisa ngempoqo eleqisayo noma likhipha isigwebo selungelo lomphakathi, isinqumo sidlulisela ukuziphatha okubonakala kwamukeleka noma kungamukeleki. U-192 ukulahlwa kwamaphoyisa kumthetho wenkosi ubhaxafa ipholidispholish ngokushaya ijaji elimhlophe kakhulu eSimi Valley, iCalifornia, California", ikhipha ukuphikisana kweLos Angeles izigings futhi iphoqelela ngengxoxo yesizwe ngezenzo zonya nangabandlu yomphakathi. Ukuthi u-Roxiv walandelwa kamuva yilungelo eliboshelwa yizikhulu ezimbili zezikhulu zeze zenkantolo ezibonisa izigaba ezihlukene kodwa ezihlukene.

Okwesibili, izinqumo zejaji zivame ukuthatha izinqumo zomthetho ezisemthethweni. Phakathi kuka-2014 no-2020, uchungechunge lwezinqumo ezinkulu zamajaji, hhayi ukumangalela izikhulu zamaphoyisa ekubulaweni kukaMichael Brown, u-Eric Garner, noBreonna Taylor zaholela ekuvivinyeni nasekubizeni inguquko. Ekuphenduleni, izifunda eziningi zamisa imithetho efuna ukuphenywa kwezikhulu ezijovwayo, ukufakwa kwekhamera yendikimba, nokusetshenziswa kwezindinganiso ezintsha ze-octal. Nakuba ijaji enkulu ingali ekuvivinyeni amajaji, ukuqhuma komphakathi ngenxa yokuhluleka kwesimiso sezombangazwe esidaliwe ngenxa yoshintsho.

Okwesithathu, ukuqulwa kwecala lisebenza njengemfundo kawonke-wonke yezemfundo[[FLT:]. Icala lamaphoyisa Derek Khauvin ngenxa yokubulawa kukaGeorge Floyd wasakazwa futhi wagadelwa izigidi. Ukuqulwa kwamajaji kuyo yonke imibango. Umphumela ongavamile emacalani amaphoyisa u-Foct [FLT:] u-Derekvin [[FLT]] u-Develop [ukuqualisa umyalezo ocacile ngecala. Icala ngokwalo lafundisa umphakathi ngezingozi zokuvinjelwa kwentamo nokubaluleka kokungamelwe igwegwegwe. Ngomphumela, [FLD:] [FLD] Flodyd Justice kumthetho we-Policcial Act[FFoct:] [FD] [5])) kwamiswa kweminyango lwawokushintsha izinhlelo eziningi.

Ukuhlanganisa: Inkemba evulelwe kabili

Enye yezinamandla kakhulu − neyamajaji aphikisana kakhulu — i-tools ikhono lokuqeda umthetho ngokukhulula ummangalelwa ngisho nalapho amaqiniso eveza ngokucacile icala. Ngokomlando, amajaji aseNyakatho asebenzisa ukuchitha ukukhulula ababulali abasiza abaqambile izigqila. Ngawo 1970, izigebengu ngezinye izikhathi zenqaba ukusola ababhikishi abashiswa amakhadi empi noma abacekela phansi impahla phakathi nempi elwa no-Anti-Vietnam. Muva nje, abanye abashisekeli bempi baye babiza ukuchitha izivumelwano zezidakamizwa ezicaleni zezidakamizwa [[] njengendlela yokubhikijela ukuviswa kwemijovwa kweqembu noma ukususwa kwezinhlanga ngesigwebo.

Kodwa ukuchithwa futhi kungafeza izinjongo ezizinzile. Izinkantolo zokuqala ezimhlophe ezimhlophe eNingizimu kaJim Crow zivame ukubakhulula abamangalelwa abamhlophe ababehlasele noma babulale ama-Afrika. Ukulahlwa kwamadoda abulala uMedgar Evers (ukuqulwa kokuqala kwecala kwaphela ngemigede exhotshiwe; amashumi eminyaka kamuva, amacala abekwa icala) kubonisa indlela ukuchithwa kwamadoda amhlophe ayesetshenziswa ngayo ukuvikela abagebengu abalwa ngezenzo zobudlova. Izinkantolo zilokhu zinqume njalo ukuthi amajaji anamandla okuqeda, kodwa abahluleli abatshelwangatshelwangatshelwanga lutho, futhi abameli abavunyelwe ukuphikisana ngokukhululekile ngenxa yalokho. Lokhu kungathi kusekuthathe amashumi eminyaka kamuva, kwabekwa icala elikhulu ezinhlanganweni zemithetho.

Izinselele Nokulinganiselwa: Ukuqothulwa Kwezinto, Ukukhishwa Kwesimiso Somzimba, Nokungalingani Kwaso

Naphezu kwenhloso yentando yeningi, izigebengu zivame ukuveza ubandlululo lomphakathi eziwuthandayo. Ukucwaswa kwezinhlanga ngokukhethwa kwabahluleli kuye kwaba yinkinga engapheli. Ngisho nangemva kwesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ] Batson v. Kentucky[ (1986) ukusetshenziswa kwegalelo lokulahla okusekelwe ohlazweni, abashushisi nabameli baye bathola izindlela zokuphuncula umthetho. Ucwaningo lubonisa ukuthi abamangalelwa abamnyama basebuntwane kakhulu namajaji amhlophe kwezinye izindawo, nokuthi ngisho nokuba khona koyedwa umBlabhuki wejaji kunganciphisa ukuqiniseka kohlobo lwezimo ezithile.

Ezinye izici ezilulaza ukungakhethi kwabahluleli zihlanganisa:

  • Imingcele yezezomnotho: Iholo eliphansi lemisebenzi yokwahlulela, ukuntuleka kwezindawo zokulala zabaqashi, nezinselele zokuhamba ziholela ekudluliseleni ngaphansi kwezakhamuzi ezimpofu nezisebenzayo.
  • ubandlululo oluyindida:[ Ngisho nabasizi bemali abasho lungafukamela ubandlululo olungaqondakali oluthinta ukuhlolwa kwabo kobufakazi, ikakhulukazi uma ummangalelwa nofakazi bezinhlanga ezihlukahlukene.
  • Ukuqonda okuyinkimbinkimbi komthetho kanye nobufakazi obungokobuchwepheshe kungadida izikhombi, kuholele ezinqumweni ezisekelwe emzwelweni kunokuba zisekelwe emthethweni.
  • [[FLT: 0] Umphumela oqinile: ezimweni zamalungelo abantu, amajaji angathonywa ukwesaba izinxushunxushu zomphakathi noma ukucindezela komphakathi, njengoba kubonakala ezinkolelweni ezilahliwe isikhathi eside ze-Edgar Ray Killen[ ngenxa yokubulawa kwamalungelo abantu ngo-1964 eMississippi (empela walahlwa ngo-2005, eminyakeni engaphezu kwengu-40 kamuva).

Izinguquko Zokuqinisa Indima KaJury Ekulungeni Okuqhubekayo

Beqaphela lokhu kushiyeka, abasekeli bomthetho nabakhi bemithetho baye baphishekela izinguquko ezihloselwe ukwenza amajaji ahlukene futhi angacwasi. Phakathi kwezinyathelo ezamukelwa noma ezahlongozwa:

  • Umthombo wejaji ozenzakalelayo uhlela: Ukuhamba ngaphandle kwezincwadi zokuvota ukuze kuhlanganiswe ilayisense yomshayeli namarekhodi entela ukuze kwandiswe ichibi.
  • Izinselele zokuzihlenga ngokuphelele: Ezinye izifundazwe, njenge-Arizona ne California, ziye zasusa igalelo lenkuselo noma zazilinganisela ukunciphisa ukususwa kobuhlanga.
  • Iziyalezo ezifakazelwe: iziyalezo ezicacile zolimi olucacile ezikhuluma ngokunqabela ukucabangela uhlanga, nezincazelo zokungabaza okunengqondo.
  • Imfundo ebanzi: amavidiyo okuqondisa angaphambili neziqondiso ngobandlululo olucacile.
  • Ukunyuka kwenkokhelo yejaji nesivikelo: Izifunda ezihlukene ziye zaphakamisa isinxephezelo futhi zenqabela abaqashi ekujeziseni izisebenzi ngenkonzo yamajaji.

Lezinguquko zibalulekile, kodwa kumelwe zihambisane nemizamo ebanzi yezenhlalo yokusingatha ukungalingani. Inkantolo, vele, ilungile kuphela uma isimiso esizivezayo singenza. Ngaphandle kokuthola ukumiswa okungokomthetho okuqinile nokugcinwa komthetho okungenacala, ngisho namajaji ahlukahlukene kakhulu angafinyelela umphumela ongalungile.

Isiphetho: Ukuhoxa Okuqhubekayo Kokuqulwa Kwamacala Esonto Ekulweleni Amalungelo Omphakathi

Kusukela ekususweni kwezigqila kuya ekulahlweni kwezikhulu zamaphoyisa, ukuqulwa kwecala kuye kwaba yisibuko esibonisa ukulwa kweMelika nobulungisa nokulingana. Kuye kwasetshenziselwa kokubili ukuphoqelela ukucindezelwa nokuqhubekisela phambili inkululeko. Amandla ejaji ukuthi "angenacala" noma "icala" lithwala isisindo esikhulu sokuziphatha nezenhlalo, futhi amandla aye asungula imithetho eshintshiwe, futhi kancane kancane andisa imingcele yamalungelo omphakathi.

Namuhla, njengoba izimpikiswano ngokuguqula amaphoyisa, amalungelo okuvota, kanye ne-LGBTQ+ ziqhubeka, isimiso sokwahlulela sisalokhu sibalulekile lapho izakhamuzi zingathonya khona ngokuqondile inkambo yobulungisa bezenhlalo. Ayisona ithuluzi eliphelele, kodwa yileso esiqhubeka siqapha futhi siguqula . Uma izakhamuzi zikhonza kumajaji, zithatha umthwalo wemfanelo wokungagcini nje umthetho, kodwa izifiso zomphakathi ofisa ukuba nobulungisa nolingana nabo bonke.

Ukuze kufundwe ngokwengeziwe emlandweni wobandlululo lwabahluleli, ACLU inikeza imithombo emelelwe yijaji, kuyilapho i-Oyez Project[ inikeza amacala aningiliziwe enqubeni eyinhloko njenge [[FLT:] Batson v. Kentucky[ kanye [FLT] no-'FLT] no-'AMALT. [[FLT:]] Inhlangano yeSishaya] ikhipha iziqondiso zokuthuthukisa inkonzo yejaji.