I-War Powers Resolution ka-1973 ingenye yezimpikiswano eziphikisana kakhulu zomthetho-mthetho emlandweni womthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. Yahlolwa ukuba iqondise umongameli uRichard Nixon's, iklanyelwe ukuhlola amandla kamongameli okubeka amabutho e-U.S. ekulweni kwempi ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa kwesivumelwano. Imvelaphi yayo, nokho, ihlangene kakhulu nezimpikiswano zomthetho mayelana nokuchazwa okufanelekile kwamandla kamongameli. Emashumini eminyaka amuva, ifilosofi yenkolo yakuqala − inkolelo yokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo kufanele uchazwe ngokwencazelo yawo yasekuqaleni ngesikhathi sokumiswa kwesivumelwano. Isayensi yezwe, izahluleli, abenzi besimiso sempi. Lesi sihloko sihlola indlela ifilosofi yakuqala ethonya ngayo iMpi, izimpikiswano ezingokomthetho ezihlobene nayo, ukuphikisana kwemithetho kanye nezenzo ezingokomthetho phakathi kwegunya.

Ukuqonda Ifilosofi Yabantu Abakholelwa KuNkulunkulu

Ifilosofi yoqobo igomela ngokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo kufanele uchazwe ngokwencazelo yokuthi abantu abanengqondo babeyoyiqonda njengeyagunyazwa ngesikhathi ikhona. Lendlela igcizelela incazelo yasekuqaleni yombhalo nomongo ongokomlando wenkathi yokusungulwa, ngokuvamile ukwenqaba izincazelo zokwahlulela noma zezombangazwe eziguqula izindinganiso zamanje. UbuSquary abuyona i-monolith; bunemicu emibili eyinhloko. inhloso igxile kulokho abafemu abahlose ngakho, kuyilapho uqobo lwawokuqala lubheka ukuthi incazelo yasobala yasobala [[[FLT] ayiyona i-octlith; ibheka indlela isakhathi esiqonda ngayo umbhalo we-mthetho ngesikhathi sokuzinza. I-Anto yanamuhla, njengaleyo ye-Anto engasekho u-Sctalian, njengoba ingu-Sctalian inguqual, inguqualth ne-Trence, inguqualth ye-T.

Ifilosofi yathola ukuhlukaniswa kwefilosofi ekupheleni kwekhulu lama-20 leminyaka njengempendulo yalokho abagxeki abakubheka njengokuthatha isinyathelo sokwahlulela kanye nokufundwa okukhulu kwamandla aphethe. Emkhakheni wemibuso yempi, omfundi wokuqala uphikisa ngokuthi umbhalo nohlelo loMthetho-sisekelo kunikeza ukuhlukana okucacile, okumisiwe kwegunya phakathi koKhongolo-mfutho nomongameli. Lengxenye, ihloselwe ukuvimbela isenzo sezempi esingahambisani nesigaba sokuthi iMpi yaMandla yayihloselwe ukulawula. Ngokunamathela encazelweni yokuqala, abakholelwa ekuhlukani komthetho wemithetho yemibuso ilondolozwa, futhi ukulandisa ngentando yeningi kugcinwa ezindabeni zempi nokuthula.

Isisekelo Somthetho - sisekelo Samandla Empi

Isimiso somthetho-mthetho semibuso yempi sitholakala ngokuyinhloko eziHlulweni I nase II. ISiphakamiso Nginika uMkhandlu amandla okumemezela impi, ukuphakamisa nokusekela amabutho, ukunikeza nokugcina ibutho lempi, futhi wenze imithetho yokubusa kwamabutho ahlomile. ISiphakamiso II sichaza umongameli njengoMphathi-Sikhulu weButho ne-Butho leMpi, kanye nowamabutho amabutho kahulumeni lapho ebizelwa kuvikelwa uhulumeni. Le ngxenye yayiwumphumela wokuxoxa ngokucophelela eMhlanganweni woMthetho ka-Cunistial ka-1787, okubonisa ukungathemba amandla ombuso alawulwayo nokuqaphela isidingo somyalo obumbene phakathi nempi.

Umbono Wabasunguli

Abasunguli bakhomba izimpikiswano zoMsunguli ukuze bakhanyisele ukuqonda kwabo imibuso yempi. UJames Madison waphikisa kuyi-Federalist Papers ukuthi isimiso somthetho-sisekelo sokuhlola nokulinganisela saklanyelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuthi “amandla okumemezela impi” ayeyobekwa eKhonsethini, kanti umongameli wayezokhipha impi eyake yamenyezelwa. U-Alexander Hamilton, kuFederalist No. 69, waqhathanisa umongameli waseMelika nenkosi yaseBrithani, ephawula ukuthi amandla kamongameli njengoMyaleli-in-Chiefe “a ayephansi kakhulu” enkosini, ikakhulukazi ngenxa yokuthi umongameli wayengeke amemezele impi ngaphandle kwemvume yoMkhandlu. Izazi zenkolo zigcizelela ukuthi uMsunguli wesizwe wayebona amandla okuqala umsebenzi we-buhlanga, esimisweni sesinqumo seqembu leqembu le-Gastrustry.

Umbhalo Nezakhiwo Zomthetho - sisekelo

Kusukela kumbono wokuqala, umbhalo woMthetho-sisekelo ngokwawo unquma. ISiqesha-Siphakamiso u-War Claus (Athicle II, Ingxenye 8, u-Claus 11) unikeza uKhongolo-kahulumeni amandla okuphela “wokuqeda iMpi,” okholelwa ukuthi ihlanganisa kokubili izimemezelo ezingokomthetho kanye nemvume yokubopha impi. UMyaleli-in-Chief Claus (UmGawulayo-Chief Clausle II, iSiqephu 2, iSigaba se-2, iSigamu seSisi 1, unikeza umongameli umthetho phezu kwamabutho ezempi lapho esemasimini, kodwa awusikiseli amandla okusungula i-Istal-in-Chief Claus ephikisa noma incazelo yokuqala yempi ngokucuphene.

Isinqumo Semibuso Yempi: Ukusabela Ekubuseni Kweqembu Eliphethe

I-War Powers Resolution ka 1973 yamiswa ngemva kweMpi yaseVietnam, impi lapho umongameli uLyndon Johnson noRichard Nixon baqhuba khona imisebenzi emikhulu yezempi ngaphandle kokumemezela ngokusemthethweni impi kuMkhandlu. Injongo eyinhloko yeSigqizo yayiwukubuyisela igunya lobuthunywa lokwakha impi nokuvimbela omongameli besikhathi esizayo ukuba babangele amabutho ahlomile ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa kwenhlangano. Izinhlelo eziyinhloko zihlanganisa:

  • Ukuhlanganisa: umongameli kumele athintane noMkhandlu “kuyo yonke indawo” ngaphambi kokufaka amabutho ezimpini noma ezimweni lapho kuboniswa khona ukuthi uhileleke ezimpini.
  • Umbiko: umongameli kumelwe athumele umbiko obhaliwe kuKhongolo-kanye namahora angu-48 okuletha amabutho, ukuchaza izimo, igunya, kanye nokulinganisa izinga kanye nesikhathi sokuthembisana.
  • Active:[ Ngaphandle kokuba uMkhandlu umemezele impi noma ugunyaza lesenzo, amabutho kumelwe asuswe phakathi nezinsuku eziyi 60, ngokunokwenzeka kukhululwe izinsuku ezingu-30 ukuphepha kwamabutho.
  • Isinqumo samanje: ekuqaleni, uMkhandlu ungafuna ukuhoxa kwamandla ngokushesha ngokudlulisa isinqumo esivumelanayo, nakuba lelilungiselelo laze lancitshiswa ngokuphumelelayo yisinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme ngo 1983 S v. Chanha, eyayikholelwa ukuthi ama-genes ayengavumelani nemithetho.

Lesi Sinqumo sasiyimpendulo eqondile kwabaqondisi abaphethe, kodwa ukufaneleka kwalo mthetho - sisekelo kuye kwangatshazwa kusukela lapho liphuma.

Izikhalo Zezimemezelo Zempi Zezazidabuka

Izingqondo ezikholelwa ekudalweni kwakuqala ngokuvamile zibheka i - War Powers Resolution njengenhlangano elawula ukuqondisa okusonta ukwabiwa komthetho - sisekelo kokuqala kwemibuso yempi.

Ukuhlolwa Kwamandla Omphathi - mphathi

Abaqondisi bemfundiso yoqobo baphikisa ngokuthi iResolution inikeza i-Resolution imvume yokuqulisa nokukhipha isikhathi ngaphandle kwemibandela ephikisa indima kamongameli njengoMyaleli-in-Chief. Imfuneko yokuba amabutho asuswe ngemva kwezinsuku ezingu-60 . Ngokungenamdlandla igunyaza ukubopha ukubophela ukubopha isivumelwano okuqhubekayo (-_ngokuqinisekile inikeza iKhomishane i-Hulumend Congress i-ast aqhubeke nemisebenzi yezempi. Lokhu, kuphikisana nokuqondana kokuqala ukuthi umongameli uyaqhubeka nokulawula amabutho empi lapho eseyenziwa. Njengoba iJalia ephawule engqungqungquthelenisweni yakhe ngokunamandla aqhubekayo. [FLTLD][FLT1][2004]], umyaleli-Chin-emperdeyycepy (204]) uhlanganisa igunya lokwenza izinqulumo zenqubo zempi futhi ahlulelo.

I - War Memorial Claus Nencazelo Yegama elithi “Impi”

Abaqondisi benkathi yokuqala baphikisa futhi incazelo ecacile ye-Resolution ye- “Resolution’s.” Isinqumo sivusa izimfuneko zokukhomba nokuhoxa lapho amabutho eqala khona“ ukuhlasela” noma “ukuphikisana lapho ukuhileleka okuseduze ekulweni kuboniswa ngokucacile ngezimo.” Omfundi benkathi yokuqala baphikisa ukuthi iSivumelo soMthetho-sisekelo u-Grand War Claus asenziwanga ukuhlanganisa zonke izimpi ezincane noma ukulwa okufushane. UMamdisonta, ngokwesibonelo, umehluko phakathi kwempi ephelele (isimemezelo esiphelele) kanye ne “impi ephelele” (isikhala esingenakulinganiswa). Abanye abakholelwa ekutheni umongameli ukuvumela ukuba aphendule noma ukuziphatha okulinganiselwe ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa kwempi, njengoba lezizenzo zingalingani nesilinganiso esiphelele. Ukuxazululwa okuqinile, ukuxabana okuqinile, ukuxabana okuqinile kwempi, ukuxabana okunga konke lokhu kuphelelwa ngenxa yokuqondana kokuqonda kwalokhu.

Ukuhlukana Kwamandla Nokulandisa Kwezombangazwe

Omunye umsunguli wezincwadi wakuqala ugxile ekuphazamiseni ukuphazamiseka kokuhlukaniswa komthetho-sisekelo kwemibuso. Abasunguli baphikisa ngokuthi lapho uMsunguli ehlela isimiso lapho igatsha ngalinye lizoba nemibuso ehlukene nemithwalo yemfanelo, nokuthi iSinqumo sifiphaza lemigqa ngokunika iziKhongolo ezishaya indinganiso zesibili zezinqumo. Lokhu kunciphisa ukulandisa kwezombangazwe. Uma uMkhandlu uphoqelelwa ukuba uvote ukuthi uvume noma awuvumelani nesibopho sezempi, amalungu eKhongolo angagwema icala lesinqumo sokuqala, kuyilapho umongameli enecala ngempi. Ababhishobhishobhisi bakhetha isimiso okumelwe umongameli afike ngaso eMkhandluleni wokugunyaza ngaphambi kokuqalisa impi, njengomthetho womthetho wokuqala, kunokuba avume ngokuvunyelwa ngokungenzi lutho.

Ukuphikisa Nezincazelo Zesikhathi Esidlule

Abagxeki bezincwadi zokuqala zezifunda zemibuso yempi − kuhlanganise nezazi ezisekela i-War Powers Resolution −argue ukuthi incazelo yokuqala yoMthetho-sisekelo ayicacile njengoba kusho abalandeli bokuqala. Baveza ukuthi abaQangi ngokwabo abaphikisanayo ngemisebenzi yezempi ngaphandle kwezivumelwano ze-Provinion, futhi lomkhuba ongokomlando kusukela ekusungulweni kwempi uye wandisa igunya lobumongameli. Ngokwesibonelo, umongameli uThomas Jefferson (iMpi Yomthetho) noJames Polk (iMpi YaseMelika neMelika) bobabili bahlanganyela ezimpini zobukhomashine, bebeka izenzakalo zokuqala zempi yangaphambi kwempi yesikhulu.

Abasekeli beSinqumo bathi impi yanamuhla ephawuleka ngokusetshenziswa ngokushesha, imisebenzi yokucasha, nobuphekula bembulunga yonke − abaphikisi kakhulu kusukela ku-18-phakathi izimpi abaQhingi abazibonayo. Baphikisa ngokuthi incazelo yokuqala yokuthi ukulinganisela okuqinile kobumongameli akunangqondo ezweni lapho usongo lungavela khona ngokuphazima kweso. Lokhu kuwumnyombo oyinhloko kulempikiswano: abakholelwa ekuthembekeni komthetho-sisekelo kanye nencazelo engokomlando, kuyilapho abaphikisi babo begcizelela isidingo esiwusizo nesidingo sokuthathelwa umthetho-mthetho ngokomthetho.

INkantolo Ephakeme iye yakugwema kakhulu ukukhipha isinqumo ngokuqondile ngomthetho-mthetho weSinqumo seWar Powers. I-Crocker v.Reagan [19984] kanye ne-Campbell v. Clinton [2000], izinkantolo eziphansi zathi izimpikiswano zazingasekelwe ngokomthetho, zishiya isinqumo esizweni sokungaqiniseki ngokomthetho. Lesinqumo siye savumela amagatsha ezombangazwe ukuba aqhubeke nomncintiswano wawo phezu kwemibuso yempi ngaphandle kwesiqondiso esicacile somthetho.

Isinqumo Esisemkhubeni: Ukusuka Emotweni Kuya Ebhideni

Kusukela ekumisweni kwakhe, akekho umongameli oye wavuma iSinqumo seMpi njengobopha umthetho-sisekelo. Wonke umongameli wase-Gerald Ford kuya kuJoe Biden uye wafaka imibiko ngaphansi kwelungiselelo lokubika lesinqumo, kodwa aye enza kanjalo ngokungaguquki “ekusekeleni” iSinqumo, ukugcina imvume yabo engokomthetho. Lomkhuba uye wakwenza kwaba ithuluzi elinamandla kakhulu lokukhipha iZinqumo ngonyaka wama-60 (*) ngokungenakuphumelela kakhulu. Omongameli baye baqala ukusebenza eGrenada (19983), ePanama (199), ePersia (1991), e-Elbalkain (1999), e-Elkaye kanye no-201818186), ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa kwe-Brekhomba.

Abaqondisi bempi baye bagxeka kakhulu lezizenzo. Baphikisa ngokuthi amongameli, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi yiliphi iqembu, baye balulaza ngokwezimiso ngezindlela ezilandelanayo incazelo yokuqala yoMthetho-sisekelo ngokuphatha amandla oMyaleli-iNkulumbuso njengenkampane yokuzihambela ukuze basebenzise amandla noma nini lapho bebona ukuthi akulungele. ISigqibo seMpi, ekuqaleni esasihloselwe ukuhlola lendlela yokuziphatha, esikhundleni saso siye saba yikhasigaxa abamongameli abasebenzisayo ukuvuma uma beqhubeka benza ngokungenamdla. Kusukela kumbono wakuqala, iSinqumo siye sahluleka ukubuyisela ukulinganisela komthetho-mthetho wempi, ngenxa yokuthi saklanywa ngokulandela imibono engekhona yokuqala ephathelene nomthetho wokulawula.

Impikiswano Yanamuhla Nekusasa Lamandla Empi

Impikiswano ngefilosofi yabasunguli be-Provist ne-War Powers Resolution iyaqhubeka idlalwa ezingxoxweni zezimiso zamanje. Izindawo ezimbili eziwusizo kakhulu ukusetshenziswa kwebutho lezempi kubadlali abangewona amazwe kanye nokuncika okukhulayo ekugunyazweni kwe-Impligion for Usease of Military Force (AMF).

Ukugadla Kwezigaxa Nokubulawa Kwabantu Abafile

I-Obama, Trump, neBiden bonke baye benza izibhelu eziqinile futhi bahlela ukubulala amaqembu amaphekula emazweni anjengeYemen, Somalia, nePakistan. Lemisebenzi ivame ukwehla ngaphansi komnyango “wezimpi” njengoba zichazwe yi-War Powers Resolce, futhi abaphathi baye basebenzisa i-AUMFs kusukela ngo-2001 nango-2002 ukuze bawathethelele. Abadali baye baveza ukukhathazeka ngokuthi le mikhosi ye-AUMFS, eyayihloselwe ukulwa okuthile e-Afghanistan nase-Iraq, iye yanwetshwa ngaphezu kwencazelo yayo yokuqala. Lokhu, baphikisa isimiso somthetho-sisekelo sokuthi i-Hulumeni kumelwe ivumele igunya ngokungenamkhawulo. Abanye abalweli bebondyebo abaqalayo ukuziboshela impi yempi yokuqala, okudinga ukuvolwa kwempi entsha.

Imizamo Yomkhandlu Yokuguqula Imibuso Yempi

Eminyakeni yamuva, amalungu oMkhandlu womabili amalungu aye amisa umthetho wokubuyisela noma wokubukeza i-War Powers Resolution. Ezinye iziphakamiso zifuna ukuqinisa iSinqumo ngokususa ikhono likamongameli lokulalela, kuyilapho amanye enganciphisa amandla awo okuvumela umongameli ukuba asebenzise ikhono lakhe elikhulu. Izazi zobuProfestherism ziye zasekela imizamo yokubuyisela imibuso yempi esekelwe emthethweni: ifuna isivumelwano sokumisa ngaphambi kokumisa izivumelwano eziqinile zempi, kuyilapho zivumela umongameli ukuba aphendule ezimweni ezingokoqobo kanye nasezimweni zokuzilawula yena ngokwakhe. Ubunzima ekuchazeni “inqaba” kanye“ nokuzinza komthetho" ngendlela ewumthetho-mthetho-sisekelo osemthethweni, ifuna ukumiswa kwanoma yisiphi isiphi isibopho esisebenzayo, kuyilapho evumela umongameli ukuba aphendulelena.

Isiphetho

Ifilosofi yakudala inikeza ukuphikisana okunamandla nokusekelwe ngokomlando kweSigqibo seMpi. Ngokuphikelela encazelweni yokuqala yoMthetho-sisekelo, abaqambi bagcizelela izindlela izinqubo zesinqumo − ikakhulukazi i-Resolution yezinsuku ezingama-60 kanye nezimfuneko zokuhlola i-"ingadlula inhloso yezintambo nokuphazamisa amandla kamongameli anamandla oMphathi-Mkhosi weNtlalo. Ngalesosikhathi, abasekeli bokuqala bagxeka kakhulu indlela abefundisi abaye basebenzisa ngayo izikhala eziphethweni zempi ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa kwe-convementation. Umphumela uyifa eliyindida: iSigqi sombuso seMpi asizange sibuyisele ukulingana komthetho okuthiwaba abaholi baqalayo noma balungiselele umsebenzi wemisebenzi yanamuhla.

Njengoba i-United States iqhubeka ibhekene nezinselele ezinzima zokuphepha − kusukela ekulweni kwembulunga yonke kuya emncintiswaneni omkhulu wemibuso − umbuzo wokuthi ubani onqumayo ukuthi amabutho aseMelika angena endleleni yokulimala usalokhu ecindezela kunanini ngaphambili. Uqobo, njengoba lugcizelela umbhalo womthetho-sisekelo kanye nokusungulwa kolwazi, ngokuqinisekile luyohlala luyizwi eliyinhloko kuleyo mpikiswano. Ukuthi lunganikeza indlela eya emandleni empi avumelanayo esimiso esidala, noma ukuthi luyohlala luyibhentshi yefilosofi emelela amaqiniso akhona okubusa okungalinganiswa ngayo.