Ukuqonda Amandla Kahulumeni Esimiso Sikahulumeni SaseU.S.

Ubuhlobo phakathi kohulumeni bakahulumeni bakahulumeni nohulumeni buyisici esichazayo sokubusa kwaseMelika. Ngokungafani nesimiso sokuhlanganisa lapho wonke amagunya esuka kuhulumeni ophakathi, i-United States isebenza ngaphansi kwesimiso sombuso ohlukanisa amandla phakathi kwamazinga esizwe nawombuso. Lelilungiselelo alimi lapho kuphela (ukumiswa) ngomthetho-sisekelo, izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme, nokuyekethisa kwezombangazwe. Abafundi nabafundisi abafunda izifunda zomphakathi, ukuqonda ukuhlelwa kwemithetho yezwe kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela ebekwe ngayo, ephoqwayo, futhi ebekela insela. Lesi sihloko sinikeza ukuwohloka okuningi kwemithetho yezwe, isisekelo somthetho womthetho ngokomthetho, isisekelo, izingcindezi zangempela, nokuphikisana okuqhubekayo okuchaza isifunda isifundazwe esilawula umbuso esinamandla.

Ayini Amandla KaHulumeni?

Imibuso yoMbuso ibhekisela egunyeni ohulumeni bombuso ngabanye abanalo phakathi kwemingcele yoMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. Lokhu kuvame ukubizwa ngokuthi "imibuso egciniwe" ngoba ayinikezwanga ngokuqondile uhulumeni kahulumeni noma inqatshelwe ezizweni. ISichibiyelo seshumi seSimiso se-Bill of Rights senza lesi simiso sicace: "Imibuso engaphathiswa i-United States umthetho-sisekelo, noma enqatshelwe yiwo eUnited States, igcinelwe eUnited States ngokulandelanayo, noma kubantu." Lokhu kusebenza njengesisekelo somthetho-mthetho-siseko sobukhosi bezwe.

Imibuso yoMbuso ibanzi futhi ihlanganisa izici eziningi zokuphila kwansuku zonke ezingabhekiswa ngokuqondile ezingeni likahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, iphawula ukuthi ilawula amalayisense omshado, ukugunyaza i-antscheme, ukudayisa ngokwezentengiselwano, umthetho wempahla, nomthetho wezobugebengu obuningi. Ilawula futhi ukuqondisa kokhetho (ukumisa amahora okuvota), izindawo zomphakathi, kanye nezimfuneko ze-ID ze-overtial ezingaphikiswanga ngokuqondile eminyakeni yamuva. Ngaphezu kwalokho, amazwe anegunya lokwakha imithetho yawo siqu, uma lawo maphepha engangqubuzani nomthetho-mthetho-mthetho-sisekelo we-U.S.

Umsebenzi Womthetho - sisekelo: Lapho Kuvela Khona Amandla Ombuso

UMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. umisa isimiso sokubusa okumbaxambili. ISiphakamiso I, iCandelo 8 lihlela imingcele ebaliwe yemibuso yeSishaya-mthetho, njengokukhomba imali, ukumemezela impi, nokuqondisa ukuhwebelana kwezwe. Okwamanje, iSichibiyelo seshumi seSichibiyelo sisebenza njengendawo yokudoba yonke, siqinisekisa ukuthi noma yimuphi amandla angahlelwanga `awenqatshelwe' ezindaweni. Umthetho-Constitution ubeka futhi imikhawulo ecacile emagunyeni ombuso. Ngokwesibonelo, i-I, isigaba 10 senqabela ukungenela ezivumelwaneni, ukukhokha imali, noma ukudlulisa imithetho evimbela izivumelwano. Lemithetho iqinisekisa ukuthi akukhona ukuthatha imingcele elula ubunyeni besizwe noma ukuqina kwezomnotho.

Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, ukuchazwa kwesifundazwe nombuso kahulumeni sekushintshile. Ukubekwa kwecala eliphakeme eSiphakamisweni VI kwenza umthetho kahulumeni "umthetho wezwe," okusho ukuthi imithetho kahulumeni esebenzayo ilawula imithetho ephikisanayo kahulumeni. Lomqondo, owaziwa ngokuthi ukukhulula kukahulumeni, uye waba yindaba yamacala amaningi evelele eNkantolo ePhakeme. Ngokuphikisanayo, iNkantolo iye yaqinisa futhi amandla ombuso ezinqumweni ezinjenge National Federation of Independent Business v. Selius[FLT:] (20), owalinganisela amandla eSishayamthetho sombuso weSishayamthetho weSikhathi se-Atlalo ngaphansi kwe-Commerce Claus Claus.

Amandla Agciniwe v. Amandla Akhona

Kubalulekile ukuhlukanisa phakathi kwemibuso ebekelwe (ehlanganisa nezifunda) kanye namandla akhona (ahlangene nohulumeni wombuso). Imibuso egciniwe ihlanganisa ukumisa ohulumeni bendawo, ukuqhuba okhetho, nokuqondisa ezentengiselwano zezwe. Imibuso yamanje ihlanganisa ikhono lokukhokha intela, ukuboleka imali, ukumisa izinkantolo, nokuphoqelela imithetho. Zombili izigaba zikahulumeni zingasebenzisa amandla ahambisanayo ngesikhathi esisodwa, nakuba umthetho kahulumeni ungazehlisa umthetho wezwe ezimpini.

Ngokwesibonelo, kokubili izifundazwe nohulumeni kahulumeni zingakhokha intela yeholo. Nokho, uma uMkhandlu udlulisa umthetho wentela owenqabela ngokuqondile intela kahulumeni endaweni ethile, umbuso kumelwe ukhiphe. Lokhu kuhlanganisa phakathi kwamandla akhona nawagcinekile kwenza isimo esingokomthetho esiyinkimbinkimbi esidinga ukuchazwa ngokuqhubekayo.

Izindawo Zegunya Likahulumeni: Izibonelo Ezinemininingwane

Imibuso yoMbuso ebonakala ezindaweni eziningi zezimiso. Ngezansi kunezindawo eziyinhloko ezinezibonelo ezikhulisweyo zezwe langempela ezibonisa indlela amazwe asebenzisa ngayo igunya lawo.

Imfundo

Imfundo ngokuyinhloko iwumthwalo wemfanelo wezwe nezwe. Isifunda ngasinye sinomnyango waso wemfundo ohlela izindinganiso zemfundo, izimfuneko zothisha, kanye nezindlela zokuxhasa ngemali. Izikole zendawo ziqhubekisela phambili inqubo yalezimiso ukuze kuhlangatshezwane nezidingo zomphakathi. Ngokwesibonelo, iMassachusetts sekuyisikhathi eside ingumholi wemfundo esungulile, kuhlanganise nokusetshenziswa kwesilinganiso sombuso sokuhlola okusemgangathweni kuMassachusetts Comprehensivement Assesment Sy System (MAS). Ngokungafani, iCalifornia isebenzisa i-Assessment of Studient Modeficial and Progresstion (CAASP) futhi iye yasebenzisa i-Forsalving i-Forsalm ye-Local Laving Ink ukuze iqondise izikole eziko ezise-malini ezise-malini eziphezulu.

Esinye isibonelo yimpikiswano ngokuphathelene nesikole esikhethwayo. i-Arizona Quening Education Savels akhawuntis, ivumela abazali ukuba basebenzise imali yomphakathi ezikoleni zesikole noma zesikole esizimele. IFlorida inesimiso esikhulu sokufaka isiqinisekiso, kuyilapho ezinye izifundane zinezimiso zokuthola izifunda ezingenazikole eziphakeme. Lemithetho ehlukene iqokomisa indlela amazwe asebenza ngayo njengezindawo zokuhlola idemokrati, ukuhlola izindlela ezihlukene zenguquko yemfundo.

Izinyathelo Zokwelapha

Izwe linegunya elikhulu ekuthwaleni impilo yomphakathi nasekunakekeleni impilo. Baphatha izinhlelo ze-Medicaid ngokuhlangene nohulumeni, kodwa ngaphakathi kweziqondiso zikahulumeni ezibanzi, izifunda zingaklama iziqondiso zabo, izinzuzo, nezimiso zokukhokha. I-Affordible Care Act (ACA) ikhuthaza ukusungulwa kwesilinganiso sikahulumeni ngokuvumela abachaphazeli bemifanekiso efihlwayo. I-Arkansas, ngokwesibonelo, isebenzisa i-Medicaid deviter ukunweba ukusebenzisa "ukhetho lwasese" olusebenzisa izimali zikahulumeni ukuthenga izakhamuzi ezithola imali ephansi.

Massachusetts futhi ivelele njengephayona. Umthetho wayo wezokwelapha ka-2006, owasayinwa yi-Governor Mitt Romney, wafuna cishe zonke izakhamuzi ukuba zibe nomshuwalense wempilo, zisungule umshuwalense wempilo, futhi wanikeza izimali kubantu abahlawulwa kancane. Lo mthetho kahulumeni wasebenza njengepulani ye-ACA. Muva nje, i-California, iColoradorado, ne-Washington ziye zahlola amasu okunikeza umshuwalenselawu kahulumeni, ubonise indlela amazwe angasunduzela ngayo isimiso sezempilo eziqondiso ezintsha.

Izakhiwo Zokuhamba

Izwe linemigwaqo eminingi yomphakathi nemigwaqo emikhulu, ngaphandle kwe- Interstate Highway System, exhaswe ngokuyinhloko nguhulumeni wezwe kodwa esetshenziswa yizifundazwe. Umnyango wombuso ngamunye wamapulani okuthutha, amapulani, amapulani, amapulani, ukwakha, futhi ulondoloza inxanxathela yawo yemisebenzi yemvelo. Ngokwesibonelo, iTexas, iye yafaka inzuzo enkulu ekwandiseni umgwaqo ukuze isekele inani labantu abakhulayo, kuhlanganise neprojekethi ye-Trans-Texas Corrinor ephikisanayo (manje eshintshwe) nentuthuko eqhubekayo yemigwaqweqwe. Ngokungafani, i-Oregon neWashington iye yagxila ekuthutheni izinto eziningi, iziporo ezikhanyisayo, izikephethu, izikelele, izinqola zezimoto, nezinjini ezihambayo, kanye nezindawo zomgwaqo.

I-stade ilawula futhi izindinganiso zezimoto. iCalifornia inegunya elikhethekile ngaphansi kwe-Cease Air Act ukubeka izindinganiso zayo siqu zemoto, eziqinile kunemithetho kahulumeni. Ezinye izifundazwe zingakhetha ukwamukela izindinganiso zeCalifornia noma ukulandela ezi-gunyeni. Lokhu kuye kwadala ukuhlukana okukhulu kwemithetho yezimoto futhi kuye kwabangela izimpi ezingokomthetho phakathi kweCalifornia ne-EPA eminyakeni yamuva.

Ukuphoqelelwa Komthetho Nobulungisa Besigebengu

Izwe linomthwalo wemfanelo oyinhloko wokuqapha umthetho wobugebengu. Zigcina ezalo izinhlangano zamaphoyisa (izigada zasemgwaqweni wasemgwaqweni, amabhungane ombuso wokuhlola), izinqubo zenkantolo, namajele. Lokhu kuholela ekuhlukahlukahlukanisweni okukhulu kwemithetho yomthetho womthetho womthetho wobugebengu. Ngokwesibonelo, iNew York inemithetho eqinile yokulawula izibhamu, kuhlanganise nemfuneko yokulawula izibhamu, kanti iTexas inemithetho eyekelelayo evumela ukuvulwa kwezibhamu ngaphandle kwemvume (ngango-2021). Ngokufanayo, imithetho yensangu iyahlukahluka kakhulu: iColoradorado ne-stavity Coloravian ne-stavity Commast Cannabis ngo-2012, kodwa e-Idaho ne-South Dakota, ingumpatho, ingume.

Izimiso zokugweba nazo zihluke kakhulu. Ezinye izifundazwe, njengoLouisiana, ziye zathola amazinga aphakeme okuboshwa nemisho efushanisiwe, kuyilapho ezinye, njengo-Oregon, ziye zazama ukuqeda isilinganiso esincane sezidakamizwa futhi zinciphisa imigwebo ngenxa yamacala angenabudlova. Lokhu kushintsha kwemithetho kubonisa indima kahulumeni njengendawo yokuhlola inguquko yobugebengu.

Izingxabano Zezwe Ezingokoqobo Phakathi Kwamandla Ombuso NoMbuso

Izingxabano phakathi kwegunya likahulumeni nohulumeni azivezwanga nje kuphela ukuthi zidlalwa ezinkantolo nasezindlini zezishaya - mthetho kulo lonke izwe.

Umkhuba Wokuzitika

Uma umthetho kahulumeni ungqubuzana nomthetho kahulumeni, isigqebhezana sidinga ukuba umthetho kahulumeni uthathe indawo . Ngaphandle kokuba umthetho kahulumeni ungekho ngokwemithetho. Esinye isibonelo esikhulu yisimiso sendawo ezungezile. Umthetho we-Ceather Air Act uvumela i-EPA ukuba ibeke izindinganiso zomoya wesizwe, kodwa izifundamo zinomthwalo wemfanelo oyinhloko wokusebenzisa lezo zindinganiso. Eminyakeni yamuva, izingxabano ziye zavela phezu kwemithetho ye-Trump ekhipha i-methane, i-California kanye nezinye izifundazwe ezibekelwe inselele enkantolo. Izinkantolo zigomela ukuthi izikhulu zingamukela izindinganiso eziqinile kunesisekelo sikahulumeni ezisezimweni eziningi.

Ukuthunyelwa Kwamandla Okufuduka

Ukungena kuyindawo yokungezwani okukhulu kwesifundazwe sikahulumeni. Nakuba uhulumeni kahulumeni unegunya elikhethekile ngokubekwa kwemvelo nokuvikelwa komngcele, amazwe aye azama ukungenela. Arizona v. United States (20202]), iNkantolo Ephakeme yabulala amalungiselelo ayinhloko e-Arizona's S.B. 1070, eyayifuna amaphoyisa ahlole ukufuduka phakathi kokunqamuka ngokomthetho. INkantolo yanquma ukuthi imithetho enjalo yalahlwa umthetho wezethuntuthu. Nokho, iNkantolo yavumela ukuba "kuveza amaphephandaba akho" ilungiselelo lokuma, iqokomisa umugqa omuhle phakathi kokubambisana kwezwe nombuso.

Muva nje, iTexas neFlorida ziye zathumela abafuduki emazweni asenyakatho bebhikisha izinqubo zikahulumeni zomngcele, bebhebhethekisa ukumangalelana kwecala nezimpi zezombangazwe.

Ukukhipha Isisu Namalungelo Okuzala

Phambi kwesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme [2022] ku- Dobts v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization, eyagumbuqela Roe v. Izwe lalilinganiselwe ekhonweni labo lokuvimbela ukukhishwa kwesisu. [Phakathi [[FLT:]] [[FLT]] [[FLT]] , manje linegunya elikhulu lokulawula noma ukuvimbela ukukhishwa kwesisu. Amanye amazwe, njengaseTexas, avinjelwe cishe u-Qult, kuyilapho amanye, njengaseCalifornia kanye ne New York, adlulise imithetho yokuvikela ukukhishwa kwesisu nokujikeleza kwezindawo ezivinjelwe kakhulu. Lendlela yokuguqula izimpawu izimpawu noma ukuncishiselwa kwemithetho yemithetho engokomthetho.

Ukugunyazwa Kwecala Nokulwa Kwempi Kazwelonke

Naphezu kokunqatshelwa kwenkasa yombuso ngaphansi komthetho we-Guipted Substances Act, izifundazwe eziningi ziye zabhalisa ngokomthetho kwezokwelapha noma kwezokuzijabulisa. Lokhu kwakha ukuphikisana okuqondile phakathi kombuso nomthetho kahulumeni. IJaji Department iye yenqaba kakhulu ukuqungatha imicimbi yombuso ngaphansi kweCole Meinerandum (Iyalandelwa ngo-201818 kodwa njengendaba esebenzayo). Nokho, amabhizinisi ama-cannabis asabhekene nezithiyo ezinjengezithiyo ebekelwe imingcele elinganiselwe yokubhankiswa nokujeziswa kwentela ngaphansi kwe-Internvolution Colle Revolution Programme R2009. Lokhu kuthintela ukulinganiselwa okusebenzayo kwemibuso lapho isimiso sombuso siqhubeka sinonya.

Indima YeNkantolo Ephakeme Ekufumbeleni Amandla KaHulumeni

INkantolo Ephakeme isebenza njengomsizi wokugcina wezimpikiswano zesifundazwe sikahulumeni. Izinqumo zayo ziye zahlela ukulingana kwamandla emakhulwini amabili eminyaka adlule. Mcloch v. Maryland[ [1819]], iNkantolo yamisa ukuthi izifunda azinakukhokha intela izinhlangano zikahulumeni nokuthi izimemezelo ezidingekile nezifanele zinikeza uMkhandlu. GIBBON v. Ogden[FLT:] [18]] [184], iNkantolo yandisa amandla ezentengo yomthetho entengo yezentengo yezentengo.

Muva nje, iNkantolo ithole imvume engokomthetho futhi yathola amandla kahulumeni. Ku-Shelby County v. Hoder (2013), iNkantolo yalahla ilungiselelo eliyinhloko le-Voting Rights Act elifuna izivumelwano ezithile zikahulumeni ngaphambi kokushintsha imithetho yokhetho. Lesi sinqumo sibuyiselwe ukulawula kwezimiso zokuvota, kuholele ekwakheni imithetho emisha yokuvota ezweni lonke. Ngokuphikisana, bergefell v. Hodges[FLT:] (20) [20], iNkakhulu lamacala abekwe enkantolo yanquma ukuthi umshado ofanayo uyisisekelo ngaphansi kwe-14, ukunquma okuchaza imithetho ephakathi kwezelulekwa. Lemithetho incazelo engokomthetho yeNkakhulu.

Okwenza Ukuqonda Amandla Kahulumeni Kubaluleke

Kubafundi nabafundisi, ukutadisha amandla ombuso akuyona nje indlela yemfundo kuphela − inemiphumela yangempela yokuba yizakhamuzi, ukuqasha, nokwenza isimiso. Ulwazi lwezinga likahulumeni elilawula impikiswano ethile lusiza izakhamuzi ukuba ziphumelele kakhulu. Ngokwesibonelo, umuntu okhathazekile ngezimali zesikole zendawo kufanele athintane nendlu yombuso, hhayi iSishaya-mthetho. Ngokufanayo, umnini wezebhizinisi oqondisa imithetho udinga ukuqonda kokubili izimfuneko zikahulumeni nohulumeni.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, imibuso yombuso iyinkundla lapho kwenziwa khona imithetho eminingi ethinta ukuphila kwansuku zonke. Umthetho wobugebengu, umthetho womkhaya, umthetho wempahla, nomthetho wesivumelwano konke kuyizindawo zikahulumeni eziyinhloko. Ngisho nezimiso zikahulumeni zixhomeke ekufezekeni kombuso, njengoba kuboniswa ngemisebenzi yezempilo, umshuwalense wokungasebenzi, nemvume yendawo ezungezile. Ukuqashelwa ngamandla kwemithetho yombuso kuvumela abantu ukuba bahlanganyele ngokunenjongo ezimisweni zentando yeningi kuzo zombili imigangatho.

Isiphetho: Ubukhosi BukaHulumeni Obunamandla

Imibuso yoMbuso ayimi ndawonye. Iguqula ngokulungisa umthetho-mthetho, umthetho, izinqumo zenkantolo, nokushintsha kwempucuko yezombangazwe. ISichibiyelo seshumi sihlala siseyitshe eliqinile, kodwa incazelo yaso ihlale ivivinywa. Imfundo, ukunakekelwa kwempilo, ukugcinwa komthetho, nezinye izindawo eziningi zibonisa ubukhulu begunya likahulumeni nokubaluleka kokusungulwa kwezwe. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, izinselele ezinjengokuhlehliswa kwezwe kanye nezimpikiswano ezingokomthetho zisikhumbuza ukuthi amandla ezwe ahlala ehlolwa ubukhosini besizwe.

Ukuqonda lokhu kulinganisela kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofunda uhulumeni waseMelika. Ngokuhlola izibonelo zezwe zangempela zenzalo-massachusetts zezobuchwepheshe bokuthutha kuya ku-Texas, kusukela e-Arizona imithetho yokufuduka kuya eColorado insangu yagunyaza ngokomthetho, sabona ukuthi imibuso yombuso iyikho kokubili ebangela ukuhlukahlukahluka kohulumeni kanye nento elawulayo yempi yomthetho-sisekelo. Njengoba izwe libhekene nezinselele ezintsha ezindaweni ezifana nokushintsha kwesimo sezulu, imininingwane yezindaba, namalungelo okuvota, impikiswano mayelana nalapho igunya lombuso liphela khona negunya lezwe liyoqala khona kuyo. Kubafundisi nabafundi ngokufanayo, ukukwazi lokhu kuyisihluthulelo sokuba umthathi hlangothi ofundile ekuhloleni idemocrali.