Nangula wa Malamulo: Kumvetsetsa Malo Otetezera Opachikidwa Aŵiri

Chiletso cha kuopsa kwa kaŵiri chikuimira chimodzi cha zitetezero zokhalitsa kwambiri m'malamulo aupandu. Ku United States, Malamulo achisanu amapereka chitetezo chimenechi, akumati palibe munthu amene adzaikidwa kaŵiri paupandu kapena palamende, ngakhale kuti pali zifukwa zina zolakwika. Mfundo imeneyi imatsimikizira kuti kutha kwa upandu, kuletsa boma kuti lisamagwiritse ntchito chuma chapamwamba pogwiritsira ntchito wokwaniritsidwa. Chitetezero cha panthaŵi imodzi cha bungwe la abusa la Immachi chikhale choikidwa m’malo amodzi, ndipo chinene kuti munthu wina akalakwa, kapena kuimbidwa mlanduwo, ngakhale kuti ndi chigamu, chigamu choyamba chikachitika.

Zifuno ziŵiri za ngozi ziŵirizo nzakuti zili zozikidwa pa chilungamo: zimasunga umphumphu wa zigamulo za oweruza mwa kuletsa boma kuchotsa oimbidwa mlanduwo, ndipo limatetezera anthu ku mavuto a kuweruza kotsatizana, kumene kukawakakamiza kunyamula malamulo a zachuma, a malingaliro, ndi a kakhalidwe ka anthu odzitetezera okha. Monga mmene Khoti Lapamwamba lolembedwa mu [FLT: 0] kub. United States [[FLT: 1] [1957], lamulo la malamulo la malamulo a kutha kwa oimbidwa mlanduwo. Komabe, kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa chiphunzitso chimenechi kuli kutali ndi nkhani wamba, makamaka pamene nkhani zophatikizapo milandu, zolamulira zambiri, kapena zonga ma procckingsmessss .

Phunziro la nkhani 1: [[FLT : 0] Ashe v. Sunson [1] (1970) – Chiphunzitso cha Colteral Estopel

Chimodzi cha zifuno zazikulu koposa za ngozi yoŵirikiza kaŵiri chinapezekanso m'nkhani yakuba ku Missouri. Robert Ashe adaimbidwa mlandu wakuba konyamula mfuti kwa oseŵera asanu ndi mmodzi a poker . Pa kuzenga mlandu kwake woyamba kwa mbala ya munthu mmodzi, ajuli anamasula Ashe chifukwa cha kupereŵera kwa umboni. Komabe, boma linamzenganso mwamsanga chifukwa cha mbala yachiŵiri pa chochitika chimodzimodzi. Ashe's ananena kuti kuletsa kuyenera kuweruza kwachiŵiri, monga nkhani yaikulu ya Asche anali mmodzi wa mbala .

Chigamulo cha Bwalo Lapamwamba la Milandu

Khoti Lalikulu la United States linagwirizana ndi Ashe mu chigamulo cha Ashe mu 8-1, kuvomereza kuti chigamulo cha ngozi ziŵiri chimaphatikizapo chiphunzitso cha kutsimikizira kokhala ndi lamulo, chimene chimaletsa boma kuchotsa nkhani zenizeni zimene zinagamulidwa ndi kukhululukidwa. Khotilo linalingalira kuti chigamulo choyamba cha ajuli chinapeza kuti Ashe sanali mmodzi wa achifwamba, ndipo boma silingamkakamize kutetezera funso lotsimikizirikalo. Mlanduwu unasonyeza kuti ngozi yoŵiri imaposa kungozemba mlandu umodzimodziwo.

Chiyambukiro Chogwira Ntchito pa Kuchinjiriza Kwaupandu

Kwa maloya otetezera, Ashe v. Sunson akupereka chiŵiya champhamvu. Ngati wowalemba mlandu wachotsedwa pa mlandu umodzi, kudzitetezera kuyenera kupenda zimene anapezadi m'chigamulo chimenecho. Ngati mfundo zimodzimodzizo n’zofunika pa mlandu wina woyembekezera, njira yochotsera mlandu woimira al estol eglepal ikhoza kuikidwa. Apolisi a tchalitchi chimenechi angachititse milandu yonse yochokera ku mlandu umodzi waupandu, kapena adzitsekereza kukhoza kuilondola pambuyo pa chikhululukiro. Nkhaniyo imasinthanso malangizo aumboni mosamala kwambiri, monga momwe masinthidwe a chiweruzo angadziŵire ukulu wa nkhani ya preclion.

Phunziro la Milandu 2: United States v. Ball (1996) – Kutha kwa Kukhululukidwa

Mlandu wa maziko wa kumaliza kwa mlandu wotheratu unakhudza anthu atatu oimbidwa mlandu chifukwa cha kupha. Millard Goundmore Ball ndi antchito ake ogwirizana nawo anazengedwa mlandu mu 1891 ndi kumasulidwa. Miyezi isanu ndi itatu pambuyo pake, boma linapeza chigamulo chatsopano cha kupha munthu mmodzimodziyo, ndipo amuna atatuwo anazengedwa mlandu, ndi kuweruzidwa kuti aphedwe. Khoti Lapamwamba linasintha mlanduwo, likumasunga kuti mlandu wachiŵiriwo unaswa kuopsa koŵirikiza kawiri. Woweruza Gray analembera anthu ambiri kuti "chigamulo cha kulakwa, ngakhale kuti sanatsatiridwe ndi chiweruzo chilichonse, ndi chigamulo chotsatirapo cha mlandu wokhudza mlandu womwewo.

“ Ulamuliro Wapanthaŵiyo" Wopatuka

Pamene kuli kwakuti chiphunzitsochi chimakhazikitsa malo otetezera a bhedi ndi boma kumbuyo kwa kukhululukidwa, chiphunzitso cha ulamuliro wa munthu chimapanga kusiyana kwakukulu ku ngozi ziŵiri. Chiphunzitsochi chimalola maulamuliro osiyana (monga ngati boma ndi boma lolamulira) kuweruza khalidwe limodzimodzilo popanda kuswa Lamulo Lachisanu. Chiyeneretso nchakuti mfumu iliyonse ili ndi malamulo ake ndi chikhumbo chake poikhazikitsa, kutanthauza kuti woiimba mlandu saikidwa kaŵiri muupandu "chifukwa cha kulakwa komweko"" milandu ya boma n’njosiyana chifukwa chakuti amaswa malamulo achifumu osiyanasiyana.

Phunziro la nkhani 3: [[FLT: 0] Ggush v. United States (209) – Dual Common Afred

Pa chitokoso chaposachedwapa ku chiphunzitso cha uchifumu cha mbali ziŵiri, Terance Gamble anaimbidwa mlandu m'bwalo la boma la Alabama chifukwa cha kuba ndipo kenaka anaimbidwa mlandu wa kugwidwa ndi mfuti ndi mtsogoleri wa milandu, wozikidwa pa chochitika chimodzimodzi. Gamble adatsutsa kuti chiphunzitso cha uchifumu chamitundu iŵiri chiyenera kugwedezeka, kunena kuti chimachepetsa chitetezo chachikulu cha ngozi ziŵiri ziŵiri. Khoti Lapamwamba, m'chigamulo cha boma, linakana kulamulira chiphunzitsocho, kuchirikiza mphamvu ya boma, kuiikira kumbali pambali imodzi ya khalidwe limodzi pansi pa onse aŵiri a boma ndi lamulo. Chilungamo Alito, cholembera anthu ambiri, chinagogomezera kuti chiphunzitso cha ulamuliro cha u "Ikalekale" m'mbiri ya dziko ndi kuti chigwedere mphamvu ya boma pakati pa boma.

Kwa otetezera, Gwirikiti [[FLT: 1] imagogomezera kufunika kwa kupenda mosamalitsa milandu imene ingachitike m'boma ngakhale pambuyo pa kukhululukidwa kapena kugamulidwa. Kupatula kwa ulamuliro kwaŵiri kumatanthauza kuti boma silimasulira boma, kapena kuti chigamulo sichimaletsa kuweruza boma chifukwa cha khalidwe lomwelo. Zimenezi zimagogomezera kufunika kwa kusamala kwa boma, kukambirana mapangano amene amaphatikizapo mafumu onse, ndi kupanga chigamulo chimene chimakhala choyamba.

Phunziro la nkhani 4: [[FLT: 0] . . United States (2009) – Kusinthanso Makalata ndi Colteral Estopel

Kuwombana kwa zigamulo zosasintha ndi kuyang'anira kutsegulidwa kwa F. Scott Yeager, yemwe kale anali mkulu wa bungwe la Enron. Yeager anayesedwa pa milandu yambiri yokhudzana ndi kubisa zinthu ndi kugulitsa. Oweruzawo anammasula pa milandu yachinyengo koma adapachikidwa pa ziweruzo za mkati. Boma linafuna kuyesa kuyesa Yeager pa milandu ya kugulitsa, akumanena kuti kuchotsako sikunathetse kwenikweni nkhani iliyonse yachindunji ya ku malonda a mkati. Yeager's Concederaleevation estong, akumati mapepalawo adapeza kuti sanachite monyenga.

Kufufuza kwa Khoti Lalikulu

Khotilo, m'chigamulo 6-3, linagogomezera kuti boma silingavomereze kuti gulu lililonse likhale logwirizana ndi boma. Mfundo yaikulu inali yakuti kuimbidwa mlandu kwa ajuliwo pa milandu yachinyengo sikunavomereze kuti pali njira yolakwika yomwe inalinso mbali yofunika ya mlandu wogulitsa. Khotilo linagogomezera kuti kuŵerengera kopangika sikuimira kupezedwa kwa zenizeni kwa chipani chilichonse ndipo sikungasokoneze zotsatira zake zotheratu za kuchotsedwa. Mlanduwuwuwuwuwuwuwu umapereka phunziro lotsutsa: pamene makhoti asudzulo abweze zigamulo ndi zigamuzo zonse ziŵiri ndi kuikidwa pamtengo, kukanidwa kukhozabe kuchotsa milandu yopachika ngati nkhani zolondolazo ziri zogwirizana bwino.

Kaphunziridwe ka 5: [[FLT: 0] Blueford v. Arkansas [1] (2011) – Mabungwe ndi Kulakwa

Kugwirizana pakati pa milandu yolakwa ndi ngozi ziŵiri kunapendedwa m'nkhani ya Alex Blueford, amene anaimbidwa mlandu wakupha anthu ndi kupha anthu pang'ono kuphatikizapo milandu. Mkati mwa kukambirana kwa ajuli, ajuli anasimba kuti kunali kogwirizana pa kupha munthu ndi kupha munthu koyambirira koma kokhala komangidwa ndi kupha munthu. Khoti lozenga mlandu, litatha kulephera kupeza chigamulo pa kupha munthu, linalengeza mlandu wolakwika pa milandu yonse. Bomalo kenaka linafuna kuyesa Blueford kaamba ka kupha munthu wamkulu ndi kupha munthu woyamba. Chitetezo chinatsutsa kuti mlandu wa ajuli wosanena za kuphana kowopsa upandu woikidwa ndi mlandu wonenedwa kukhala wolakwa, woweruza milandu yoimbidwanso pa milanduyo.

Bwalo Lamilandu Linam’tsutsa Wolakwa

Khoti Lalikulu, m'chigamulo 6-3, linavomereza kuti lipoti lamwamwaŵi la oweruza la kusavomereza milandu yaikulu siliri ngati kuimbidwa mlandu kwalamulo. Chifukwa chakuti oweruza sanabweze chigamulo cholembedwa pa milandu imeneyo ndipo makhoti olakwa analengezedwa chifukwa cha kupha kwenikweni mlandu wotsalirawo, kuopsa koŵirikiza sikunatsekerezenso mlandu. Woweruza wamkulu Roberts analemba kuti "Udindo wa ajuli wafa chifukwa choikidwa pang'ono sutanthauza kukhululukidwa mlandu uliwonse waukulu.

Phunziro 6: [[Nkhani: 0] Currier . Virginia [1] (2017) – Haiver ya Jeopardy

Lamulo lakuti chitetezo cha ngozi ziŵiri chingapimidwe pansi pa mikhalidwe ina linayesedwa m'nkhani ya Michael Currier, amene adaimbidwa mlandu wa kuthyola ndi kuthyola mazira. Khoti lozenga mlandu, ndi kutsutsa kwa Currier, linalola mlanduwo kuyesa milanduyo. Pa kuzenga koyamba, Currier anamasulidwa ku kuswa nyumba. Pa kuzenga mlandu kwachiŵiri kwa adonala, Currier anatsutsa kuti kuthyola mlandu kwa boma kuletsa bomalo kutsutsa ngati iye analipo pa chochitikacho. Makhoti adakana chigamulo chimenechi, ndi Khoti Lapamwamba linatsutsa kuti polephera kuletsa mlanduwo, Curri adavomereza mlanduwo ndi kulakwa mlandu wachiŵiri uliwonse.

Maphunziro Abwino Operekera Uphungu pa Nkhani za Usilikali

Kudzitetezera kumatumikira monga nthano yochenjeza maloya otetezera. Pamene khoti lilamula kuzenga mlandu pa chitsutso cha woimbidwa mlandu, zitetezero ziŵiri za ngozi zimakhala zosasintha. Koma ngati kuvomereza kuchotsa zifukwa za machenjera [1] monga ngati kuyembekezera kuchotsedwa mlandu umodzi umene ungakhale ndi chiyambukiro chotheratu. Mlanduwo umagogomezera kufunika kwa kutsutsa kowonekera bwino pa zolembedwa ndi kulingalira mosamalitsa za kugwirizana pakati pa kuyang'anira ndi kulakwa kwa kaŵiri. Uphungu wa kuyang'anira uyenera kuona ngati kufunafuna ziyeso zosiyana kumaika pachiswe kukhoza kwachiŵiri kozikidwa pa kusudzulidwa kwa kusuta kwachiŵiri.

Phunziro la Nkhani 7: Kuyesa [[FLT: 0] [1] Kuyesa – Kudziŵiratu "Kuleka

Chida chovuta kwambiri m'kusanthula ngozi ziŵiri ndilo kuyesa kopanda kanthu , kopangidwa mu [FLT] . United States (1932]). Kuyesa kumeneku kumafunsa ngati mlandu uliwonse umafunikira umboni wa mbali imene wina sakuchita. Ngati mlandu uliwonse uli ndi mbali imodzi yosiyana, umalingaliridwa kukhala mlandu wosiyana kaamba ka zolinga zoŵirikiza kaŵiri, ndipo chilango kapena chilango chosiyana sichimaletsedwa.

Kufufuza mu Brown v. Ohio [1] (1977]

Nkhani ya Nathaniel Brown inajambula mayeso a Blockburger. Brown anaba galimoto, anaiyendetsa kuchokera ku Ohio mpaka ku West Virginia, ndipo anagwidwa mlungu umodzi pambuyo pake. Iye anaimbidwa mlandu woyamba wa kukondwera (mnzake) ndi kupatsidwa chilango cha masiku 30. Atamasulidwa, anaimbidwa mlandu wa kuba galimoto (afalo) chifukwa cha kuba galimoto komweko. Khoti Lapamwamba linakhulupirira kuti chifukwa cha chimwemwe linali kupha galimoto, kutanthauza kuti mbali zonse za chimwemwe zinali m’kuba kwa galimoto. Khoti linagogomezera kuti mayeso achiŵiri adachitidwa pa makampani a stalburg, osati umboni woperekedwa pozenga mlandu.

Zothandiza Zothandiza Poteteza Apandu

Kufufuza nkhani kumeneku pamodzi kumasonyeza kucholoŵana ndi mphamvu ya ngozi zoŵirikiza kaŵiri monga chitetezero chalamulo.

  • Kutsata kwa milandu: njira zopitira zozikidwa pa ngozi ziŵiri zimafuna kusanthula mosamalitsa za zochitikazo, kuphatikizapo mafomu ogamula, malangizo a ajuli, ndi zopezedwa zenizeni zotsimikizirika zotsimikizira ku kukhululukidwa kulikonse.
  • Kusanthula kwa Creafral estopel: Pambuyo pa kukhululukidwa, uphungu wodzitetezera uyenera kuwona nkhani zenizeni zothetsedwa ndi chigamulo ndi kutsimikizira kaya ngati nkhani zimodzimodzizo ziri zofunika ku zinenezo zoyembekezera kapena zoyembekezeredwa.
  • Malamulo ndi nkhani zothetsa: Pamene mayeso alengezedwa chifukwa cha kusungidwa kwa mahule, kudzitetezera kuyenera kulingalira ngati lilobolo lakufalo liri lofunikira kulungamitsa mayeso, kapena ngati khalidwe la oweruza linachititsa mayeso, amene angaletsenso kuyang'anizananso pansi pa Oregon v. Kennedy [[FL:3] (192]]
  • Kuzindikira kwa ulamuliro wa munthu: Kupatsidwa kulekana kwa uchifumu kwa mbali ziŵiri, uphungu wotetezera uyenera kuyembekezera kuloŵetsedwamo kwa boma ngakhale pambuyo pa zochitika za boma, makamaka m'nkhani zophatikizapo mfuti, mankhwala ogodomalitsa, kapena malonda a maiko akunja.
  • Upandu: Upo uliwonse wakudula milandu kapena mayeso osiyana uyenera kupendedwa mosamalitsa kaamba ka chiyambukiro chake pa zinenezo zangozi zoŵirikiza.

Kumaliza: Kufunika Kopirira kwa Maupandu Aŵiri

Malamulo otetezera aupandu aŵiriwo adakali chimodzi cha zitetezero zofunika kwambiri m'lamulo laupandu, kutsimikizira kuti boma silingagwiritsire ntchito molakwa mphamvu yake ya kuchititsa anthu kugwidwa ndi khalidwe lomwelo. Kufufuzako kunafufuza pano (kuchokera ku Ashe v. Sevenson ku [FLT]] ku [ku] . United States . [Kupatulapo chiphunzitso cha chisinthiko ndi kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwake kopindulitsa m’zinsinsi zosiyanasiyana. Pamene kuli kwakuti kuli kupyola kwa uchifumu wosiyana ndi mikhalidwe ina ndi yogwirizana ndi kutetezera, chitetezo chachikulu choletsa kulakwa kaŵiri kofanana. Kwa ophunzira aŵiri onsewo, kumvetsetsa kwa malamulo ndi kuchirikiza mfundo zofunika zofunika za kutetezera.

Kuŵerenga kowonjezereka pa nkhani imeneyi kumaphatikizapo chigamulo cha Khoti Lalikulu mu Ashe v. Sunson (70), Cornell Legin Information Institute ya kupenda maupandu oŵirikiza , ndi Department ya Chilungamo Crimnalane Manual pa mapysinsinsi a kaŵiri .