Maziko a Malamulo a Zotsatira Zoyenera: Zimene Muyenera Kudziŵa

Mfundo ya kulinganiza zinthu ndiyo maziko a malamulo a ku America, chitetezero ku zochita za boma zodzifunira zimene zimawopseza moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu. Imayambitsidwa m'zaka mazana ambiri za mwambo walamulo, njira yoyenerera ya Konsichushoni yaikidwa ku U.S. kudzera pa Malamulo a Finute ndi 14th Reconsoled, kupanga chitetezo cha mbali ziŵiri zimene zimagwira ntchito ku maboma onse a boma ndi a boma. Nkhaniyi imafufuza maziko a malamulo a njira yoyenerera, kutengera chiyambi chake, kutulutsa nthambi zake zazikulu ziŵiri — Procedtural ndi subtivetic — ndi kupenda mmene milandu yotchuka ya Khoti Lapamwamba ndi zito lamakono zikupitirizabe kulinganiza tanthauzo lake m’zaka za zana la 21.

Zimene Zimayambitsa Zinthu Zimene Ziyenera Kuchitika

Mfundo yakuti boma liyenera kutsatira malamulo abwino ndi kukhazikitsa malamulo pomana munthu ufulu wawo sinachokere ku Philadelphia, koma inayamba kwa zaka zambiri, ndipo inayambira ku England.

Magna Carta ndi Lonjezo la Chiweruzo Chosunga Chilamulo

Chisonyezero chotchuka kwambiri choyambirira cha ntchito yoyenerera chikuwoneka mu Magna Carta ya 1215. Chaputala 39 cha chikalata chimenecho chinalengeza kuti: “ Palibe munthu waufulu adzagwidwa kapena kuikidwa m’ndende, kapena kuchotsedwa ufulu wake kapena chuma, kapena kuchotsedwa m'ndende, kapena kuimirira kwake m’njira ina iliyonse, kapena kukakamizidwa ndi iye, kapena kutumiza ena kuchita tero, kusiyapo kokha mwa kuweruza kololedwa kwa anthu ake kapena ndi lamulo la dziko. &squo; Regationmmmash; &quo; nthaŵi zonse anatembenuzidwa monga “ njira ya lamulo ” m'And programust , m'malamulo achingelezi pambuyo pake, kapena kutumiza mfumuyo kulamulidwa kwa lamulo. Mawuwa &ldquadqu; pomalizira pake anatembenuzidwa ndi malamulo a American.

Chilamulo Chofala cha Chingelezi ndi Matchati a Atsamunda

Pambuyo pa Magna Carta, zikalata zalamulo zotsatira za Chingelezi zinalimbitsa chitetezo choyenera. Chikalata cha 1628 cha Malo ku Chilungamo ndi Bill Wachingelezi wa ufulu zonse ziŵirizo zinaletsa chilango popanda ulamuliro walamulo. Pamene atsamunda a Angelezi anakhazikika ku North America, anabweretsa mapulinsipulo ameneŵa. Malamulo a boma ndi malamulo oyambirira a boma nthaŵi zonse anaphatikizapo “ lamulo la dziko la & ” mawu a mawu. Mwachitsanzo, Massachusetts Body of Liberties (1641) adalola kuti Aldquo;nos amoyo kapena agogo a boma achotsedwe &hip; koma ndi lamulo lina la Colony. ”

Choloŵa chimenechi chinasonkhezera mwachindunji AFramers mu 1787. Pamene kuli kwakuti Malamulo oyambirira anali ndi kuyenera kwa munthu mmodzi ndi mmodzi koŵerengeka kokha, Findf Amendment &mdash ; inavomerezedwa mu 1791 monga mbali ya Bill of Rights — kuletsa mwachindunji boma la boma kulanda munthu aliyense wa “ moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda njira yoyenerera ya lamulo. ” Panthaŵiyo, mawuwa anamvedwa monga chitsimikiziro cha malamulo: boma linayenera kutsatira njira zokhazikitsidwa zalamulo asanalange munthu wina. Koma tanthauzo lake likakulakula kwambiri pambuyo pa nkhondo ya Civil.

Malamulo a Malamulo Amatsimikiza: Mamendulidwe a Nachisanu ndi 14

Lamulo la U.S. lili ndi mawu aŵiri oyenerera, limodzi ndi limodzi lokhala ndi mbali yake yosiyana koma logawana maziko amodzi.

Kukonzanso Kwachisanu ndi Boma Ladziko

Demendulo, imagwira ntchito kokha ku boma la boma, ikulongosola m’mbali yofunika: “ palibe munthu amene adzakhala wochotsedwa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda njira yoyenerera ya lamulo &helpip;. ” mawu ameneŵa amaletsa mwachindunji Nyumba ndi mabungwe a boma. M'dziko loyambirira, silinachotsedwe, koma pambuyo pa Nkhondo Yachiŵeniŵeni inakhala chiŵiya champhamvu kaamba ka chiwembu chotopetsa boma.

Mpumulo wa 14 ndi Dziko

Kuikidwa kwa lamulo la 14neth Amendment mu 1868 kunazindikiritsa mfundo yosintha. Chigawo 1 chimapereka: “ &helpip; Boma lililonse lidzalanda munthu aliyense moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, popanda njira yoyenerera ya lamulo. ” mawu ameneŵa anatsatira mfundo zazikulu zofananazo kuti alamulire maboma. Okonza mapanganowo anafuna kuti ateteze anthu amene kale anali akapolo ku boma logawa. M’zaka za zana lotsatira, ngakhale kuli kwakuti Khoti Lali lalikulu linagwiritsa ntchito kubwezera chilango ku “ Concarrate ” za Bill of Rights &visquo; zitetezero ku maboma a &mday; kuphatikizapo ufulu wa kulankhula, kunyamula zida, ndi kuweruza kwa kumanja kwa kuweruza koyenera kupymmapymapy.

Limodzi, Malamulo a Fithmers achisanu ndi 14 amapanga mgwirizano, dziko lonse limatsimikizira kuti maboma amlingo uliwonse ayenera kuchita bwino pamene alanda munthu moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu. Funso lofunika kwambiri, ndilo chimene &lquo;fair ” limatanthauza. Funso limenelo layambitsa ziphunzitso ziŵiri zosiyana: njira yoyenerera ndi njira yoyenerera.

Mmene Zinthu Zimayendera: Kodi N’chiyani Chikufunika Kuchitika?

Projectal imadetsa nkhaŵa mapulogalamu mwa amene boma limachita. Imafunsa kuti: Boma lisanachotse munthu’ lisanachotse moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu, kodi ndi mtundu wanji wa chidziŵitso, kumva, ndi chitetezo china cha procedtural ? Yankho sili chimodzi choyenerera, chimadalira pa mawu apatsogolo.

Kulinganiza Mathews ndi Eldidge

Makonzedwe amakono a njira yolinganizira njira yamakono yoperekera malamulo anakhazikitsidwa mu 1976 m'nkhani ya Mathews v. Eldiridge (424 U.S. 319). Khoti linakonza mayeso atatu opimidwa amene makhoti akugwirabe ntchito lerolino: (1) chikondwerero chaumwini choyambukiridwa ndi kachitidwe ka boma; (2) upandu wa kusoŵa kolakwika pansi pa njira zimene ziripo ndi phindu lothekera la zitetezero zowonjezereka; ndi (3) chiwongolala cha boma ’ kuphatikizapo maprogramu ndi mitolo ya malamulo owonjezereka.

Mwachitsanzo, mu Goldberg v. Kelly[FLT: 1] (1970), khoti linatsutsa kuti asanathetse mapindu a ubwino, boma liyenera kupereka kuonekera kwa nthaŵi isanakwane chifukwa chakuti wolandira’ wofuna kusamala za moyo wa munthu anali wochuluka kwambiri, ndipo kuopsa kwa kulakwa popanda kumvetsera kunali kofunika. Mosiyana, mu Mathes , Khotilo linalamula kuti mapindu a kupunduka kwa Zachitetezo akanatha kuthetsedwa popanda kumvetsera kwenikweni chifukwa chakuti chikondwerero chaumwini chinali chosamveka bwino ndi njira za kayendetsedwe ka ntchito.

Njira Zochitira Zinthu Zachilungamo

Pamene kuli kwakuti mayeso a Mathews ngosavuta kusintha, mapempho ena a m’malemba a boma nthaŵi zambiri amafunika ngati boma lilanda munthu ufulu kapena katundu wochuluka:

  • Thokizo: Munthu ayenera kulandira chidziŵitso cha panthaŵi yake ndi chokwanira cha kachitidwe kolingaliridwa, kuphatikizapo maziko enieni ndi ulamuliro walamulo.
  • Kudziwitsa kuti Amvedwe: Munthu ayenera kukhala ndi mwaŵi wa kupereka umboni, kuitana mboni, ndi kutsutsana mlandu wawo pamaso pa wopanga chosankha.
  • Tribunal: Wopanga chosankha ayenera kukhala wopanda tsankhu kapena chikondwerero chaumwini m'chipambano.
  • Kuyenera ku Uphungu: M'nkhani zambiri, makamaka milandu yaupandu, boma liyenera kupereka loya ngati munthuyo sangathe kugula.
  • Kumanja kwa Kuyang'anizana ndi Kufufuza Mtanda: Munthu ayenera kukhala wokhoza kutsutsa umboni ndi mboni zotsutsa.
  • Malo a Zifukwa: Wopanga chosankha ayenera kulongosola maziko owona ndi alamulo kaamba ka chigamulo.

Njira Yofunika Kwambiri Yotetezera Ufulu Wofunika

Chiphunzitso chofunikira chotsutsiratu ndicho chiphunzitso chotsutsana kwambiri. Chimanena kuti ufulu wina ngwofunika kwambiri kwakuti boma silingawapotoza konse, mosasamala kanthu za mmene njirazo zimachitira bwino. Lamulo silimandandalika bwino ufulu umenewu; mmalo mwake, makhoti ayenera kugamulapo kaya lamulo lotopedwalo likuswa “orderderned Free ” kapena nlozikidwa kwambiri m'dzikolo ’ imapanga mbiri ndi miyambo.

Mmene Zinthu Zinayambira

Mbewu za ntchito yoikika zinabzalidwa m'zaka za zana la 19 pamene Khoti linayamba kugwiritsira ntchito njira yoyenerera kuswa malamulo a zachuma amene anaswa pa “liberty ya pangano. ” Mu Lochner v. New York (1905], Khoti linawononga lamulo la boma loletsa ophika mikate ’ maola ogwira ntchito, kutsutsa kuti iswa njira yoyenera ya pangano. Nyengo ino, yodziŵika monga nyengo ya Lochner, inasulizidwa kwambiri chifukwa cha kuukira ndi kusiyidwa kwachikidwa kwachiweruzo kumapeto kwa ma 1930.

Chapakati pa zaka za zana la 20, njira yoyenerera yoikidwiratu inadzutsidwanso m'nkhani zosiyana: kudzilamulira kwaumwini ndi kukhala kwaumwini. Mu Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), Bwalo lamilandu linasiya lamulo loletsa kulera ana kwa okwatirana, kupeza ufulu walamulo wa kuseri kwa ukwati. Ngakhale kuti lingalirolo linadalira pa &lquo;penbras ” za Bill of Rights, milandu ya pambuyo pake inakhazikitsa kuyenera kumeneku m’kachitidwe koyenera.

Mabungwe Ofunika Kwambiri Otsatira Kusintha

Ukulu wa kachitidwe koyenera kofuna kupatsidwa wafotokozedwa kwakukulukulu kupyolera m’zigamulo za Khoti Lalikulu pa ukwati, banja, ndi kudziimira pawekha.

  • . . [[FLT :2] Khoti linagamula kuti mkazi&FL:3] adalamulira [Mayi’ chigamulo cha kuchotsa mimba ndi ufulu waukulu wotetezeredwa ndi njira yaing'ono yotetezera, yoikidwira pamene mimba ikukula. [FLT:] [4] [FLT] adaikidwa ndi lamulo mu Dobs v. Akazi &squo; Organization of Healths , yomwe imasunga kuchotsa mimba kwakuya, ndipo siimbidwa ndi kumbuyo kwa mbiri ndi kutetezedwa kwachiyambitsidwa kwa chivomezi.
  • Lawrence v. Texas [FLT : Khoti linapeputsa malamulo oletsa khalidwe la kugonana kwa kugonana kwa chisembwere, kulengeza kuti ufulu wotetezeredwa ndi njira yoyenera umaphatikizapo kuyenera kwa achikulire kuchita za kugonana kwaumwini.
  • bergefell v. Hodges [1] (2015: Khoti linakhulupirira kuti njira yoyenerera ya mawu imapereka chitsimikiziro cha okwatirana aubwenzi kuyenera kwa kukwatira, kupeza kuti ukwati uli kuyenera kofunika kwambiri kwa kudzisankhira ndi ulemu.
  • [FLT :1] Shaughton v. Glucksberg [1] (1997): Khoti linakana chitokoso chofunikira cha boma pa kuletsa kudzipha, kugwiritsa ntchito mayeso aakulu amene anafuna kuyenera kwa kukhala ndi mtundu wa “ kozikidwa kwambiri m'mbiri ndi mwambo umenewu. &quo;

Kusiyana pakati pa nkhani zonga Obergefell (kusintha) ndi Glucksberg (kusinthanso) kumasonyeza mkangano womapitirizabe wa mmene makhoti ayenera kudziŵira zoyenera zazikulu. Ochirikiza kaŵirikaŵiri amachirikiza njira ya kukambitsirana za m'mbiri, pamene kuli kwakuti amayanja lingaliro lowonjezereka la ufulu.

Milandu ya Khoti Lalikulu Yomwe Inasintha Zinthu Moyenerera

Kuwonjezera pa milandu imene tatchulayi, zigamulo zina zingapo za khoti Lalikulu zakhudza kwambiri malamulo oyenera.

  • Mira v. Arizona[FLT :] (1966: Khoti linakhulupirira kuti Kusintha kwa Zam'mbuyo ’ ndi mawu a kudzipatula okha amafuna apolisi kudziŵitsa okayikira ufulu wawo kukhala chete ndi kukhala ndi loya amene alipo panthaŵi ya kufunsa kwa ufulu. Chitetezo chimenechi tsopano chatchuka monga “ Miranda.
  • HAmdi v. Rumsfeld [1] (2004): M'nkhani ya Nkhondo pa Uganda, Bwalo lamilandu linagamula kuti nzika ya U.S. inamangidwa monga mdani womenya nkhondoyo ali ndi ufulu wa lamulo pa kachitidwe koyenera, kuphatikizapo chidziŵitso cha maziko enieni a kutsekera ndi mwaŵi wofuna kupikisana nayo pamaso pa wopanga chigamulo chaudani.
  • Timbs v. Indiana (2029): Khotilo linagwiritsira ntchito chiwongola dzanja chochuluka cha mawu a Reight Demendment ku maboma kupyolera m'Chikalata cha 144 Demplete ’ kukhazikitsa lamulo lakuti chuma cha anthu sichiyenera kutayidwa mopambanitsa.

Zimene Zikuchitika M’zaka za m’ma 2000

Luso lamakono, kusalingana kwa zachuma, ndi njira zatsopano za boma zikudzutsa mafunso atsopano onena za zimene chilungamo chimafuna.

Kugwiritsa Ntchito Makompyuta

Kukula kwa zipangizo zamakono kwachititsa kuti pakhale njira zatsopano zoyendera boma, kusonkhanitsa zinthu, ndi kupanga zigamulo za malamulo kungakhudze anthu a mtundu wa ’ ufulu ndi katundu popanda chitetezo cha mwambo.

  • Algatorithmic Commission-akupanga: Mabungwe a Boma amagwiritsira ntchito mowonjezereka madongosolo oyendera chibadwa kugamula kuthekera kwa mapindu, kuika ziŵerengero za belo, kapena kuneneratu za kukonzanso. Otsutsa amanena kuti chiwongola dzanja “ bokosi lakuda ” malamulo amaletsa anthu mwaŵi wa kumvetsetsa kapena kutsutsa maziko a zosankha zoipa, kukhoza kuswa njira yoyenerera. Mabwalo ena ayamba kufuna kuwonekera ndi kulongosola kuwonekera m'madongosolo oterowo.
  • Comics: Chitetezero chachinayi cha Kutsegulidwa Kwake ’ chitetezo ku kusanthula kosalingalira chasinthidwa kupyolera m'zochitika zonga Karpeter v. United States , chomwe chinkanena kuti boma limafunikira chilolezo cha kupeza mathero a maselo a cellphone. Zitetezero zachinsinsi zimenezi zimagwirizanitsidwa ndi njira yoyenerera, monga momwe samatsimikizira kuti anthu afunikira kusokoneza kwa boma.
  • Kulankhula ndi Platform Modement : Pamene Kusintha Koyamba kumalamulira ziletso zambiri za boma pa kulankhula, mafunso oyenera amabuka pamene boma lenilenilo liletsa nzika kulowa m'malo a anthu onse kapena m'nkhani za manyuzipepala ogwiritsidwa ntchito pazifuno za boma. Makhoti akulimbana ndi mmene angatsimikizire njira zolungama pamene akuluakulu aboma aloŵa m'nkhani za pa Intaneti.

Kutsatira Kusamuka kwa Dziko ndi Chisungiko cha Dziko

Boma lili ndi ulamuliro waukulu pa kusamuka, koma Khoti Lapamwamba lanena mosalekeza kuti osakwanira amene alipo ku United States ali ndi ufulu wa kuyendetsa zinthu. Zadvydas v. Davis (2001], Khoti lotsekedwa mosalekeza kwa osamukira kudziko othawa kundende, kufunidwa kuti kutsekedwa. “ SEARDER ikufuna kuti munthu apereke chidziŵitso chatanthauzo ndi kumvetsera bwino asanachotsedwe ufulu, ” Jasitier Breyey.

M'nkhani zachitetezo za dzikolo, mkangano pakati pa chisungiko ndi ufulu umakhala wowopsa. Kutsekera kwa ku Guantanamo Bay kunasonkhezera mpambo wa zigamulo zotsimikizira kugwidwa kwa ndende’ zofunikira za ufulu— kuphatikizapo habeas corpus — pa Konsichura. Boumediene v. Bush . (2008) adakhulupirira kuti Suspeion Claus akugwira akaidi ku Guantamo, kuwazemba iwo kutsutsa kumangidwa kwawo m'khoti ya boma.

Chilungamo cha Fuko ndi Chachuma

Bungwe la 14th Amendment linali kuvomereza pambuyo pa nkhondo ya Clivil Black Codes. Masiku ano, ochirikiza mfundo za malamulo a boma a boma anena kuti kuphwanya malamulo kuyenera.

  • [[FLT: 0] Kusintha: Kachitidwe kokhazikitsa belo la ndalama kangagwire bwino oimbidwa mlandu osauka asanazengedwe mlandu chifukwa chakuti sangathe kulipira. Makhoti ena akhulupirira kuti zimenezi zimaswa chitetezo chofanana ndi choyenera. O ’ Donnell v. Harris County . (2029), khoti la boma linalamula Texas &squo; likulu la boma kukhazikitsa njira imene imalingalira kuti iyang'anizira kuyang'anira kulakwa kwa kuyang'anira kuyang'anira.
  • Plaining ndi Kuyenera kwa Uphungu: Milandu yaupandu yoposa 90 peresenti imathetsedwa mwa kufunsira. Mchitidwe woyenerera umafunikira kuti mapempho akhale odziŵa, odzifunira, ndi anzeru. Mu Massouri v. Frye (20]), Khoti linakhulupirira kuti uphungu wotetezera uli ndi thayo la kupereka chilolezo kwa wopereka kwa wogulitsa, ndi thandizo losagwira ntchito pa kalabu ya chigawo chopereka chomangira, limene limaphatikizapo kumbuyo kwa Kusintha kwa Chisanu ndi Chimodzi, kumene kumaphatikizapo pa kachitidwe koyenera.
  • Immunity yovomerezedwa: Chiphunzitso cha akuluakulu a boma okhoza kutetezera ku zitetezero ku thayo la anthu pokhapo ngati iwo anaswa mowonekera bwino ” lamulo. Osuliza akutsutsa kuti kumapangitsa kukhala kosatheka kuchititsa apolisi kukhala ozengedwa mlandu wa kuswa lamulo, mwakutero kululuza chiyambukiro cha chitetezo cha njira zotetezera zoyenerera. Khoti Lapamwamba labwezeretsa chiphunzitsocho m’zaka zaposachedwapa koma silinachichotse.

Zotsatirapo m’Nthaŵi Zadzidzidzi: COVID-19 ndi Nyumba

Mliri wa Covid-19 unayesedwa ndandanda yofunikira. Malamulo a zaumoyo, malamulo okakamiza a katemera, ndi ziletso pa mayanjano zinadzutsa mafunso okhudza chidziŵitso, kumva, ndi ukulu wa njira zofunikira zofunikira. Mu Apalama Association of Realtors v. Dipatimenti ya Zaumoyo ndi za Umoyo [201], Khoti linagwetsa CDC ’ Moratorium, kupangitsa kuti bungwelo likhale lopanda chilo choletsa kugamulapo kumanga katundu wochuluka choncho. Chigamulo chinagogomezera kuti ngakhale panthaŵi ya mavuto a zaumoyo, boma silingakhazitse malire otsedwe popanda chilo chomveka.

Kumaliza

Maziko a lamulo a ntchito yoikika adakali ofunika lerolino monga momwe analili mu 1789. Ngati agwiritsiridwa ntchito mwa kuyesa mosamalitsa kulinganiza njira yoyenerera kapena malo opikisana a njira yofunikira, lonjezo lalikulu nlofanana: palibe munthu amene adzachotsedwa moyo, ufulu, kapena katundu wa boma ndi ntchito yongofuna kapena yopanda chilungamo. Khoti Lapamwamba’ kumasulira kwa lonjezolo kwasintha kwambiri — kuchokera ku kutetezera ufulu wa zachuma kutetezera zosankha zaumwini zaumwini — ndipo adzapitirizabe kusinthika monga maluso atsopano ndi masinthidwe a kakhalidwe. Kumvetsetsa njira ya kachitidwe kamene kali kokha si kamaphunziro; kuli kofunika kutsimikizira kuti boma likhalebe ndi mlandu kwa anthu. Pakuti, kufufuza kowonjezereka, kuyang'anizana ndi: [FTCT] [FT]