Chiyambi: Chiphunzitso Chosemphana ndi Malamulo ndi Chiphunzitso Chake cha Boma

Chiphunzitso cha Incorporation Doctive chili chimodzi cha ziwonjezeko zazikulu koposa m'lamulo lalamulo la America. Mwa mpambo wa zosankha zoyambira kumapeto kwa zaka za zana la 19 ndi kufulumira pambuyo pa New Deal, Bwalo Lapamwamba la United States “laphatikiza [1] zitetezero zambiri m'Bill of Rights potsutsana ndi maboma kudzera m'Gulu la Claus of the 144th Amendment. Zimenezi zikutanthauza kuti ufulu wonga mawu, nyuzipepala, chipembedzo, ndi kuyenera kwa kugwirizanitsa boma tsopano ndi maboma monga momwe amagwiririra boma.

Komabe nkhani ya kuloŵetsamo si ya boma lokha. Makhoti aakulu koposa a boma m'boma lililonse(kutsatira mbali yamphamvu, yosagwiritsidwa ntchito kaŵirikaŵiri pokonza mmene ufuluwo umadziŵikitsidwira, kugwiritsiridwa ntchito, ndi kufutukulidwa. Pamene kuli kwakuti Khoti Lapamwamba la United States limakhazikitsa malo apamwamba a dzikolo, makhoti a boma angapereke chitetezo chapamwamba kwambiri pansi pa malamulo awo a boma. Zosankha zawo zingasonkhezere chiphunzitso cha boma, kupanga malaboratorishoni alamulo kaamba ka ufulu wa zolemba, ndipo nthaŵi zina kukakamiza Khoti Lapamwamba la U.S.

Nkhaniyi ikupenda njira zambiri zimene makhoti aakulu amanenera kuti makhoti aakulu amasonkhezera Incorporation Doctrine, kuyambira pa kumasulira maziko a boma odziimira kukhazikitsa zitsanzo zimene zimaloŵa m’dongosolo la boma.

Maziko: Gulu la Magulu Olamulira ndi Ulamuliro Waumodzi

Kuzindikira chifukwa chake makhoti aakulu anena nkhani ya Incorporation Doctrine, munthu ayenera choyamba kumvetsetsa lingaliro la kulinganiza kwa American unistism. United States sidongosolo ladongosolo; maboma ali ndi mphamvu zazikulu, kuphatikizapo ulamuliro wa kusunga malamulo awo, malamulo, ndi miyambo ya anthu wamba. Malamulo a U.S., kupyolera mwa Supremacy Claus, amakhazikitsa lamulo lapamwamba la dzikolo, koma maboma ali omasuka kupereka chitetezo chachikulu kwa nzika zawo kuposa chimene chimalamula Lamulo la boma.

Lamulo lachikhalidwe limeneli, lomwe kaŵirikaŵiri limatchedwa “zifukwa zodzidalira ndi zokwanira za boma,” limalola khoti lalikulu kukhazikitsa chigamulo chake chonse pa lamulo la boma. Pamene khoti ligamula mlandu pa zifukwa za boma, Bwalo Lapamwamba la United States silidzaupenda, chifukwa palibe funso la boma limene likukambidwa. Zimenezi zimapanga chida champhamvu cha makhoti kufutukula ufulu wa boma kuposa wa boma popanda kuopa kusinthidwa.

Mwachitsanzo, m’ma 1970, Khoti Lapamwamba la California linamasulira mawu achinsinsi a bomalo kuti liletse kuyang’anira malo a kumbuyo kwa nyumba za boma popanda lamulo.

Malamulo a Boma Monga Othandiza Kusunga Ufulu

Fanizo la “maluso a demokrase,” otchuka ndi Jasitisi Louis Brandeis, amagwira ntchito mwamphamvu ku zoyenera za lamulo. Makhoti aakulu a boma nthaŵi zonse amayesa ndi mafotokozedwe ena atsopano amene pambuyo pake amasonkhezera lamulo lalamulo la dziko. Izi zili choncho makamaka m'madera amene Khoti Lapamwamba la United States lakhala lokayikitsa kuchitapo kanthu kapena kumene malemba a Federal Bill of Rights amachokera m'chipinda cha programu.

Kuchulukitsa Mawu ndi Zitetezo Zofalitsidwa

Mabwalo amilandu a boma ayamba kugwiritsa ntchito kwambiri makhoti a Oregon Supreme ndi ufulu wa kulankhula. Pamene kuli kwakuti Kusintha Koyamba kumakhazikitsa muyezo wochepa, malamulo angapo a boma ali ndi chinenero chimene chimateteza ntchito yolankhula. Mwachitsanzo, chiganizo chaulerensi cha Oregon Constitution, chotengedwa mu 1857, chinatembenuzidwa ndi Oregon Sup Court kupereka zitetezero zowonjezereka za mawu onyansa ndi mawu ophiphiritsira kuposa malamulo a boma. [FLT: 0] Chikalata cha Cincannillic [FLT:] (2009), khoti linachirikiza kuyenera kugaŵira zinthu zodetsa maganizo zimene U. Khoti Lapamwamba linali litasungidwa kale ndi malamulo a boma. Mwakukhazikitsa lamulo la Bomalamulo la Oregovern, khotilo linapanga chitetezero cha boma loletsa chiphunzitso cha boma.

Mofananamo, bwalo lamilandu la New York la Appeals kaŵirikaŵiri lakhala ndi lingaliro lalikulu la kufotokoza kwaufulu, makamaka m'milandu yokhudza kuletsa kwapasadakhale ndi zoyenera za antchito a boma. Olesik ndi. Elmsford Union Free School District [2022], khotilo linagwiritsira ntchito mayeso alamulo amene anatetezera makampani a za manyuzipepala a za anthu mwamphamvu kuposa mmene chiyeso cha boma chikakhalira. Zosankha zimenezi sizimasintha mwachindunji Incoromagement Dictries, koma zimapanga bungwe lachitsanzo limene nthaŵi zinatchula pamene khoti la boma likuyankha mawu a boma.

Kukulitsa Ufulu Wokhala Wekha ndi Kusintha Momwe Ayenera Kukhalira

Malamulo achinsinsi ndi malo ena amene makhoti a boma atsogolera. Malamulo a California, okonzedwa mu 1972, saphatikiza “ufulu wa ku malo achinsinsi . Khoti lake lalikulu lamasulira mokulira. Hill v. National Collegiatec Association [1994], khoti linakhulupirira kuti lamulo lachinsinsi limagwira ntchito kwa anthu amalonda monga boma, kupita kutali ndi malamulo a boma.

Ndiponso, makhoti a boma apititsa patsogolo ufulu umene Bwalo Lapamwamba la United States silinaloŵetsepo, monga kuyenera kwa maphunziro okwanira. Abbott v. Burke (1985), Bwalo Lapamwamba la New Jersey linanena kuti lamulo la boma linkafuna ndalama zoyendetsedwa kusukulu, mawu akuti Khoti Lapamwamba la U.S. lakana pansi pa chitetezo chofanana mu Santion Antonio Independent School v. Rodriguez [1] [773]. Ngakhale kuti silinakhale lamulo lachigamu lachigamu la boma, likusonyeza mmene khoti limeneli lingakwanire malo ochokera ku junidia.

Mmene Zigamulo za Khoti Lalikulu la Boma Zimakhudzira Lamulo la Maboma

Makhoti aakulu a boma pa mfundo ya Incorporation Doctrine si ongopanga malamulo a boma okha ayi.

Ulamuliro Wokopa Anthu ndi Kupita Patsogolo kwa Miyezo ya Dziko

Makhoti a Federal, kuphatikizapo Khoti Lapamwamba la United States, nthaŵi zonse amatchula malingaliro a khoti la boma monga osonkhezera, makamaka pamene akulimbana ndi nkhani za malamulo zatsopano. Mwachitsanzo, Mainda v. Arizona (1966], Khoti Lapamwamba linadalira m'zigamulo za khoti lamilandu la boma zimene zinapereka kale machenjezo oyenera pofunsa mafunso. Khoti Lapamwamba la California mu ] chigamulo cha anthu ndi . Dorado (185]]) adakhulupirira kuti chigamulo chachisanu cha boma chinafuna kuti apolisi anene kuti anene kuti anene kuti aike kuti apitirizebe ku Mirada. Ngakhale kuti bwalo lalikulu la United States linakhazikitsa chigamulo cha dziko lonse la U.

Mofananamo, Mapp v. Ohio . [FLT .1] (1961) chigamulo, chimene chinaphatikiza lamulo lopatula lotsutsana ndi maboma, chinasonkhezeredwa ndi kuyesa kwa khoti la boma. Maboma ambiri adatenga kale malamulo opatula pansi pa malamulo awo kapena malamulo wamba, ndi Bwalo la Malamulo mu Mapp []

Kuyambitsa Mikangano Yosonkhezera Kupenda Bwalo Lamilandu Lalikulu

Makhoti aakulu a boma angaumirizenso kukhazikitsa dzanja la Khoti Lapamwamba la United States mwa kupanga chigawaniro mu ulamuliro. Pamene khoti la boma limasulira ufulu walamulo wa boma mwanjira imene imatsutsana ndi chitsanzo cha Bwalo Lapamwamba, Bwalo Lamilandu lingapereke certiori kuthetsera kusamvana. Mwachitsanzo, mu [FLT: 0] OGenefefe b. Hods (2015], Khoti Lalikulu linayenera kuthetsa mkangano pakati pa makhoti a apilo a boma amene anachirikiza ziletso za ukwati ndi boma limodzi (monga Bwalo lapamwamba la Mexico mu ].GRIEV. "2]) adaŵerenga chigamu cha ufulu cha malamulo. Pamene chigamu cha lamulo chokhudza chigamulo cha boma chimenecho chinathandiza chigamu.

Posachedwapa, makhoti aakulu apereka zigamulo pa ukulu wa chitetezo choyeneretsedwa, kufunafuna chochitika cha kugwidwa, ndi ngozi ziŵiri zimene zimaswa miyezo ya boma. Pamene Bwalo Lapamwamba la United States litenga mikangano yoteroyo, kaŵirikaŵiri limawongolera Incorporation Doctrine m’kachitidweko.

Kukhazikitsa Treatys ya National Kupyolera mu “Federalism Yatsopano”

Mkati mwa 1970 ndi 1980, gulu lodziŵika monga “New Federal" linawona makhoti ambiri aakulu akufutukula mwamphamvu ufulu wowonjezereka kuposa Burger ndi Rehnquest Courts. Alaska Supreme Court, mwachitsanzo, inamasulira malamulo ake a boma kupereka chitetezo chokulira choletsa kuyang'ana galimoto popanda lamulo kuposa ofufuza a U.S. Khoti Lapamwamba lololedwa pansi pa Demende la Folete. Momwemonso khoti la Oregon Court linaswa ziphunzitso za boma m’madera onga ngati chigamulo ndi ufulu wozenga mlandu. Zigamu zimenezi zinapanga bungwe la lamulo la lamulo lalamulo limene linakhala lotetezera akatswiri, la lizilo, ndi oweruza a boma. Pamene kuli kwakuti Bwalo Lapamwamba la U. nthaŵi zambiri linakana kutsatira boma limeneli, boma lina linasonkhezera kuti boma liimire mfundo za bomalo.

Zitsanzo Zochititsa Chidwi za Chisonkhezero cha Boma

Kuchitira chitsanzo chiyambukiro chenicheni cha mabwalo aakulu a boma pa Chiphunzitso cha Kugwirizanitsa, kuli kothandiza kupenda milandu ingapo yotchuka.

Khoti Lalikulu la ku California Linayenera Kudziimira Pandekha

Mu 1972, ovota a California anawonjezera kuyenera kwachindunji kwa kubisika kwa boma. Khoti Lapamwamba la California mwamsanga linapereka mano ameneŵa. White v. Davis[[FLT:] [197], khoti linavomereza kuti anthu a boma ali ndi ufulu wotetezeredwa ku misonkhano ya onse yopanda lamulo. [4] [FLT], khoti linayamba kufunsira chigamu chapamwamba cha U. Khoti Lapamwambalo silinalembetseke pansi pa Kukonzanso. Pambuyo pake, mu [[FLT:] anthu. Briensine [FL:] [FL:] [3] [3] [pansi pa khoti loyambirira], khotilo linagwiritsira ntchito lamulo lolamulira kufunafuna mayendedwe a galimoto kuti ligwire ntchito. U. Khoti lalikulu lina linalola [Fl.] [F] [4]

Bwalo lamilandu la New York ndi Chigaŵenga

Khoti lapamwamba kwambiri la New York lakhala loyendetsa masinthidwe a maupandu kwa nthaŵi yaitali. Anthu kuphatikiza. Anderson [77], Bwalo la Apilo la New York linamasulira kuyenera kwa boma kuti apolisi asiye kufunsa wokayikira amene anapempha loya wa boma, ngakhale ngati pambuyo pake anayambitsa malamulo okhwima kwambiri kuposa “mayeso a boma oyesa pansi pa [FLT]. Arizona (1981]). Khoti linapanga chigamu cha“ New York . Chigamulochi chimene chinapereka chitetezero cha boma cha boma, koma chinachisintha mwachindunji chigamu chimene chinapereka chigamu chalamulo china ndi chilolezo chovomerezeka ndi chikalata china chalamulo cha boma.

Khoti Lapamwamba la Washington ndi Ufulu wa Maphunziro

Mu Chigamulo cha District School No. Boma 1 v [FT:1] [1988], Khoti Lapamwamba la Washington linavomereza kuti malamulo a boma anafuna kuti boma lipereke “makonzedwe okwanira a maphunziro a ana onse.] Chigamulo chimenechi, chozikidwa pa mfundo za maphunziro a boma, chinakhazikitsa ntchito imene Khoti Lapamwamba la U.S. linakana kukhazikitsa pansi pa 149th Amendment. Ngakhale kuti silinali mlandu woikidwa pa programu, chimasonyeza mmene makhoti a boma angayambire zoyenera zophatikizapo ufulu wa boma, ndipo chiyambukirira magwero a sukulu yopereka ndalama kuzungulira dziko lonse.

Mavuto ndi Zolephera za Boma

Ngakhale kuti ali ndi mphamvu zazikulu, amatchula kuti makhoti aakulu amayang’anizana ndi ziletso zenizeni pamene akuyesa kuumba Chiphunzitso Chogwirizanitsa.

Malamulo a Chilamulo ndi Otchuka a Claus

Kulephera kowonekera kwambiri ndiko malo. Khoti lalikulu la boma limamasulira malamulo ake mwalamulo kokha mwalamulo. Pamene kuli kwakuti kukopa kumabwalo ena, kulibe ulamuliro kukhazikitsa chitsanzo cha mtundu. Ndiponso, ngati chigamulo cha khoti la boma chitsutsana ndi boma la U.S. monga momwe chikulongosoledwa ndi Khoti Lapamwamba la U.S., chigamulocho nchosaloleka pansi pa Supremacy Claus. Mwachitsanzo, ngati khoti lalikulu la boma lingasunge kuti kukhazikitsa Claus sikugwira ntchito m'boma lonse (lo linene kuti ndi losemphana ndi [FL:]].

Zitsenderezo za Ndale ndi Mabungwe

Makhoti aakulu a boma kaŵirikaŵiri amasankhidwa kapena kuchitidwa chisankho chosaiŵalidwa, kuwapangitsa kukhala okhoza kukakamizidwa kwambiri ndi chitsenderezo cha ndale zadziko kuposa oweruza a boma oikidwa m’dziko. Izi zingatsogolere ku zigamulo zimene zili zogwirizana kwambiri ndi malingaliro a anthu akwawo mmalo mwa malamulo a boma. Mwachitsanzo, makhoti ambiri a boma amasulira malamulo awo a boma kukhala oletsa ufulu wawo mmalo mwa kufutukula ufulu wawo, makamaka m’madera onga kuchotsa mimba kapena kulamulira mfuti. Mu 201818, Supreme Court, yomwe kenaka ikulamulidwa ndi unyinji wa anthu opatulidwa, inagonjetsa lamulo loletsa kuchotsa mimba pansi pa malamulo a boma. Pambuyo pa kusintha kwa ndale ya ndale ya boma, khotilo lina linasintha njira mu 20222 ndi kulamulira njira yolamulira zimenezo, kugogomezera lamulo la lamulo la lamulo la malamulo.

Kuopsa kwa “Chiyeso cha M’tsogolo ”

Ngakhale pamene makhoti a boma akulitsa chitetezo, Bwalo Lapamwamba la United States nthaŵi zina lingaletse “malamulo amenewo mwa kulengeza muyezo wa boma kukhala muyezo wokha. Mwachitsanzo, mu Lockyer v. Andrade [2003] [Bwalo lamilandu lapamwamba], khotilo linakhulupirira kuti chiletso cha Reth Amendment pa zilango zankhanza ndi chilango chachilendo sichingagwiritsiridwe ntchito makhoti a boma kupenda mfundo zachinduna popanda kudalira pa lamulo la boma lokha. Mtundu uwu wa nyumba ya boma ungachepetse mphamvu ya makhoti a kulamulira kulamulira.

Kumaliza: Kugwirizana Kochititsa Chidwi kwa Boma ndi Makhoti Amilandu

Makhoti aakulu a boma ndi olandira a boma osati ongokhala olandira lamulo la Bwalo Lapamwamba la United States. Iwo ali okangalika m'kukula kopitirizabe kwa Chiphunzitso cha Incorporation . Mwa kumasulira malamulo a boma lawo, iwo angafutukule ufulu wawo kuposa wa boma, kupanga ulamuliro wokopa umene umakhudza zosankha za boma, ndi kuyambitsa mikangano imene imasonkhezera kuwongolera malamulo a boma. Kuchokera ku California kwaufulu ku Oregongradespech Region, makhoti akusonyeza mobwerezabwereza kuti kugwirizanitsa ndi kukambitsirana kwa boma sikuli kumbali imodzi ya [1]ay, koma njira yamphamvu.

Pamene mavuto atsopano abuka [1] m'malo onga ngati malo achinsinsi a magetsi, ufulu wobereka, ndi njira zaupandu za khoti lalikulu mosakaikira lidzapitiriza kuyesa malire a kuloŵa m'gulu. Zosankha zawo zidzatumikira monga malaboratori, zizindikiro zochenjeza, ndipo nthaŵi zina mapulani a kukambitsirana kwa dziko. Kwa ophunzira a lamulo la malamulo, kuzindikira mbali ya makhoti a boma nkofunika kumvetsetsa mmene Bill of Rights imagwirira ntchito kupyola maboma makumi asanu.

kaamba ka kuŵerenga kowonjezereka, onani:[[ML:1]