Kumvetsetsa Kuopsa kwa Malamulo a ku America

Lamulo la kuopsa kwa kaŵiri limaimira limodzi la machinjirizo okhalitsa kwambiri m'lamulo laupandu la America. Limayambitsidwa pa Demendment of the Findment to the Constitution ku U.S., limalengeza kuti palibe munthu amene adzaikidwa paupandu wofananawo kaŵiri. “, wotetezedwa ndi boma kuti asapereke chigamulo chomaliza cha „ kukanidwa kaŵiri kuti aikidwe kuupandu kapena chiŵalo china. Pamene kuli kwakuti lingalirolo lingaoneke ngati lolondola, kugwiritsa ntchito kwake kumadzutsa mafunso ovuta ponena za chilungamo, kutha kwa kanthaŵi, ndi malire a ulamuliro.

Kuika munthu pangozi koŵiri sikuli kokha lamulo lachibadwa; kumaphatikizapo phindu lalikulu la chitaganya chachilungamo: kuti bomalo silingagwiritsire ntchito chuma chake chachikulu kuvutitsa, kufooketsa, kapena kulanga munthu mobwerezabwereza kaamba ka cholakwa chonenedwacho.

Magwero a Mbiri Yakalelo a Kuika Moyo Paupandu Koŵiri

Lingaliro lakuti munthu sayenera kuyesedwa kaŵiri kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo usanakhale pa malamulo a U.S. Lamulo lakale la Roma linali ndi matembenuzidwe a lamulo, ndipo linakhazikitsidwa zolimba m'lamulo la Chingelezi panthaŵi ya Chisinthiko cha America. Lamulo lachingelezi lofala debet bis vexari pro e et eadem causa [1] (payenera kukhala wokwiyitsidwa kaŵiri pa chifukwa chimodzi ndi chimodzi) lokhudza maganizo alamulo a ku America.

Otsatira malamulo a boma angapo anabweretsa lamulo lamakhalidwe abwino limeneli, ndipo malamulo angapo a boma anaphatikizapo ziganizo zaupandu ziŵiri Boma la Ufulu Woyenera lisanalembedwe. James Madison ̱ mfundo zoyambirira za Commergate yotetezeredwa ku kusakhala ndi “ kuikidwa pangozi ya moyo kapena chiŵalo cha pa ” ndi mlandu womwewo. Chinenero chinatengedwa ndi kutsutsana kochepa, kusonyeza chiganizo chachikulu chakuti boma siliyenera kulola nzika kubwereramo.

Malamulo Ogwirizana: Kusintha kwa Gawo Lachisanu ndi Kusintha

Mpando wa Kusintha Wachisanu ’ Mapeto Aŵiri a Claus akuti:

“ ngakhale munthu aliyense ayenera kuikidwa paupandu wofananawo kaŵiri kuikidwa paupandu wa moyo kapena chiŵalo. ”[[FL:1]

Mawu ameneŵa anagwiritsidwa ntchito poyambirira ku boma la boma. Sipanali kufikira Khoti Lalikulu̱ chigamulo mu Benton v. Maryland (1969) kuti chitetezo cha ngozi ziŵiri chinaikidwa pa maboma kudzera ku Servery Claus of the 144th Amendment. Lerolino, maboma onse aŵiri a boma ndi maboma amagwirizanitsidwa ndi lamulo lalikulu lomwelo.

Chitetezero cha lamulo chimafikira ku mikhalidwe itatu yosiyana: (1) mlandu wachiŵiri kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo pambuyo pa kukhululukidwa, (2) mlandu wachiŵiri kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo pambuyo pa chitsimikiziro, ndi (3) chilango chochuluka kaamba ka mlandu umodzimodziwo woperekedwa m’kupitirizabe. Komabe, tanthauzo lenileni la ̴ mlandu wofananawo” wakhala nkhani ya kulakwa kwakukulu.

Kodi Kupha Mwangozi Kumagwirizanitsa Liti?

Funso lalikulu m'malamulo a ngozi ziŵiri ndi pamene “jeopardy ” inayamba. M'kuzenga mlandu kwa oweruza, ngozi imagwirizanitsidwa pamene ajuli aikidwa pampando ndi kulumbira. M’kuzengedwa kwa benchi, imamamatira pamene mboni yoyamba yalumbira. M'nkhani za achichepere, kuwopsa kumagwirizanitsidwa pamene khoti liyamba kumva umboni. Pakachitika ngozi, woimbidwa mlandu angapereke chitetezo ku mlandu wachiŵiri popanda kugwiritsidwa ntchito ndi wosiyana.

Ngati ngozi sinaphatikizepo ndi kuikidwa pa̬ mwachitsanzo, ngati mlanduwo utha oweruzawo asanalumbitsidwe kuikidwa pa komiti ya oweruza ya komitiyo, sikumaletsedwa.

Mmene Kuopa Kulakwa Kumatetezera Nzika

Lamulo lamakhalidwe abwino laupandu wa kaŵiri limatumikira ntchito zina zofunika zimene zimapyola pa kungochinjiriza mlandu wachiŵiri.

Kutha ndi Kutsekedwa

Pamene chigamulo chaperekedwa pa — kaya ali ndi liwongo kapena wosachimwa— nkhaniyo iyenera kuthetsedwa. Nkhani yomaliza iyenera kupindulitsa oimbidwa mlandu, minkhole, ndi anthu onse. Popanda icho, boma lingapitirizebe kupereka mlandu kwa munthu, kuchotsa zinthu zofunikira ndi kuchititsa chisoni. Khoti Lapamwamba lazindikira kuti #820; boma ndi chuma chake chonse ndi mphamvu zake zonse siliyenera kuloledwa kuyesa mobwerezabwereza kuweruza munthu, mwakutero kumchititsa manyazi, kugwiritsa ntchito ndi kuchititsa tsoka. ̵ ([FL:0] . . United States v], 1957.

Kuletsa Boma Kulanda Mopambanitsa

Chitetezero cha ngozi ziŵiri chimagwira ntchito monga kuyang'anira mphamvu ya oweruza. Ngati oweruza akanazengetsa woimbidwa mlandu atamzengedwa chifukwa chakuti sanagwirizane ndi oweruza ’ zigamulo, boma likhoza kugwetsa mokhutiritsa zigamulo za ajuli popanda kutsatira njira yofunsira. Zimenezi zingafooketse mbali ya majuli monga opeza zenizeni ndi kupanga dongosolo la mlandu losatha.

Kusunga Ziŵiya Zosungira Uchigamulo

Mwa kuletsa kubwezera chilango pambuyo pa chiweruzo chomaliza, ngozi ziŵiri zimasonkhezera kugwiritsira ntchito bwino dongosolo la chiweruzo ndipo zimaletsa kugula zinthu kapena kuvutitsa boma.

Kulimbikitsa Ofufuza Mokwanira

Podziŵa kuti angopeza mpata umodzi wokha wotsimikizira mlandu, oweruza amapatsidwa mpata wokonzekera milandu yawo mosamalitsa ndi kupereka umboni wonse wopezeka pamlandu.

Pa wailesi yakanema ya Chingelezi ya ku Mozambique, ya ku Mozambique, ya ku Mozambique, ya ku Mozambique, ku Mozambique, ku Mozambique.

Nkhani yotsutsidwa kwambiri m'malamulo a ngozi ziŵiri ndiyo kugamula chimene chiri chitsimikiziro cha kulakwa kumodzimodzi. ̵ Khoti Lapamwamba linakhazikitsa kuyesa kulamulira mu . United States (1932]): ngati lamulo lirilonse lifuna umboni wa mbali imene wina samatero, iwo ali milandu yosiyana, ndipo mabwalo otsatizana saletsedwa.

Mwachitsanzo, woimbidwa mlandu amene amabera banki ndiponso kugwiritsira ntchito mfuti panthaŵi yakuba angaimbidwe mlandu wakuba ponse paŵiri ndi kugwiritsira ntchito mfuti mu upandu wachiwawa. Pansi pa kupima kwa Blockburger, izi ndizo zolakwa zosiyana chifukwa chakuti iliyonse ili ndi mbali imodzi yokha imene inasoŵa (chida cha mfuti sichipezeka pa lamulo lakuba, ndipo chipolowe sichifunikira kuimbidwa mlandu wa mfuti). Komabe, Khoti Lapamwamba lakhulupiriranso kuti kuyesa Blockburger kuli lamulo la kumasulira kwa malamulo, osati lamulo la lamulo la lamulo lakuti iRlegislasture kungafotokozebe milandu yosiyana ngakhale ngati achita mayeso a mfutiwo.

Nkhani zapambuyo pake zinawongolera kusanthula. Grady v. Corbin (1990), Bwalo lamilandu linagwiritsira ntchito mayendedwe a “ khalidwe limodzi̵ kuyesa, koma chigamulocho chinaikidwa pa United States v. Dixon [1993], limene linabwerera ku ku ku ku Dectorburger monga muyezo. Lerolino, makhoti amadalira kwambiri pa Blockburger, owonjezera ndi cholinga cha malamulo ndi kusanthula (isclustration).

Kupatulidwa ku Lamulo Lapaŵiri la Ngozi

Ngakhale kuti pali kuchuluka kwa zinthu, ngozi ziŵiri sizimagwira ntchito m’mikhalidwe yambiri yofunika.

Ulamuliro Waukulu Waukulu (Olamulira Opatulidwa)

Mwinamwake chosiyana chachikulu koposa ndicho “ maodests ̵ chiphunzitso. Pansi pa lamulo limeneli, boma la boma ndi boma lililonse zimaonedwa kukhala zolamulira zosiyana. Chifukwa chake, kachitidwe kamodzi kangaswe lamulo la boma ndi la boma, ndipo wolamulira aliyense angaimbe mlandu woimbidwa mlandu popanda kuyambitsa ngozi ziŵiri.

Mwachitsanzo, munthu amene amalanda banki yosungidwa ndi boma ku Georgia angaikidwe mlandu ndi onse aŵiri boma la United States ndi boma la Georgia. Khoti Lapamwamba linatsimikiziranso chiphunzitso chimenechi mu Gway v. United States (20209]), kukana zitsutso zakuti mabwalo aŵiriwo amalanga mlandu umodzimodziwo. Otsutsawo amatsutsa mzimu wa ngozi yoŵirikiza kaŵiri, koma amatsutsabe lamulo lokhazikitsidwa bwino.

Mofananamo, munthu angaimbidwe mlandu ndi maiko aŵiri osiyana kaamba ka kachitidwe kofanana ngati kaswa malamulo onse aŵiriwo’ ngakhale kuti milandu yoteroyo siichitika kaŵirikaŵiri ndipo kaŵirikaŵiri imalekezedwa ndi mapepala a chigawo chapakati.

Kulakwa kwa Makhoti

Ngati mlandu utha poweruza mlandu usanaweruzidwe, ngozi siingaletse kuzenga mlandu kwachiŵiri. Chochititsa chachikulu nchakuti kulakwako kunayambitsidwa ndi “ kuonekeratu kwamphamvu kwa ̵ (monga ngati ajuli opachikidwa, matenda a jaji, kapena cholakwa chachikulu) kapena chifukwa cha kulakwa kwa aloya kuti asonkhezere woimbidwa mlanduyo kuti aneneze mlandu molakwa. Ngati kulakwako kunachokera ku woimbidwa mlandu wa ̱ mayeso akeake, nthaŵi zambiri amaloledwa ngati woweruzayo sanachite zinthu mwachikhulupiriro choipa.

Zikopa za Boma

Makina Ofesala Claus saletsa boma kuchotsa milandu imene inaperekedwa (monga ngati kulola kutsekereza umboni) kapena kukopa chigamulo chopereka chilango. Komabe, boma silingapereke chikhululukiro, ngakhale kuti ndi chifukwa cha lamulo lolakwika, chifukwa chakuti woimbidwa mlanduyo waikidwa kale pangozi ndipo sanapatsidwe mlandu. Chigamulo cha kumasulidwako chalowa, nchomaliza ndipo sichingachotsedwenso.

Kufufuzanso Atachita Chitsimikizo Chowonjezereka

Ngati woimbidwa mlandu avomereza chitsimikizo mwachipambano ndi kupeza chisinthiko, boma limaloledwa kaŵirikaŵiri kuyesanso mlanduwo. Izi nchifukwa chakuti woimbidwa mlandu “waived ̵ chitetezo cha kaŵiri mwa kufuna kuzenga kwatsopano. Komabe, pali kusiyana: ngati chitsimikizirocho chisinthidwa pa maziko a umboni wosakwanira (kupeza kuti palibe wowona waukali wopezedwa kukhala wa liwongo), kutsekedwanso kwa zitsutso zoŵirikiza kaŵiri chifukwa kutsekedwako kuli kofanana ndi kulakwa.

Chiyambukiro cha Kutaya Maupandu Aŵiri m’Chilamulo Chamakono

Ngozi ziŵiri zikupitirizabe kuchita mbali yaikulu m'nkhani zazikulu ndi zovuta. Kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwake kwayesedwa m'mabwalo auchigaŵenga, upandu wa maselo oyera, ndi milandu yokhudza kuimbidwa mlandu kwa anthu ambiri ndi milandu yotsatizana. Mwachitsanzo, pambuyo pa 9 / 11, boma linayesa kuweruza anthu m'makhoti ndi m'mabwalo ankhondo omwe, kudzutsa mafunso onena za ngozi zoŵirikiza kaŵiri ndi ulamuliro wamitundu iŵiri.

Nkhani ina yamakono imaphatikizapo kuweruza kotsatizana kwa boma ndi boma kaamba ka mkhalidwe wofanana. Chiphunzitso chapadera chimalola zonse ziŵiri, koma osuliza amachitsutsa kutheketsa boma kupambana. Khoti Lapamwamba silinasonyeze chikondwerero m'kupambanitsa Gamble, koma makhoti aang'ono akupitirizabe kuwongolera malire, makamaka kumene maulamuliro a boma ndi boma agwirizana kwambiri kapena kumene kuweruza kwina kuli Khirisimasi ndi “sham ” kukana Jeopardy Clausce.

Umboni wa DNA ndi milandu yozizira zayambitsanso nkhani za ngozi ziŵiri. Mayiko ena akhazikitsa malamulo olola kutsutsidwa pambuyo pa kupezedwa kwa umboni watsopano wa DNA, koma malamulo oterowo amatsutsana ndi lamulo lamwambo lakuti kukhululukidwa kuli komaliza. Khoti Lalikulu silinalamulirebe za lamulo la malamulo a anthu otero a pa #8220; kulakwa kwa pazipatuko̵ malamulo oyesera a DNA, akumasiya nkhaniyo ikhale yotsegulidwa kaamba ka chitokoso mtsogolo.

Kusuliza ndi Kutsutsana Kopitirizabe

Pamene kuli kwakuti ngozi ziŵirizo zimalemekezedwa mofala, siziri zopanda osuliza. ena amatsutsa kuti chiphunzitso cha maulamuliro amodzi chiyenera kupendedwanso chifukwa chakuti chimalola boma kunyalanyaza chigawocho mokhutiritsa. ena amatsutsa kuti kuyesa kofananako ndi kwamwambo ndi kopanda maziko ndipo kumalephera kuwona zenizeni za malamulo aupandu otsatizana amene kwenikweni amalanga mkhalidwe umodzimodziwo.

Mwachitsanzo, munthu amene wachita mbala imodzi angaimbidwe mlandu wa ziŵerengero zambiri zoŵerengeka pa̬ kuukira, kuukira, kulipira zida, kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo, ndi zina. ̬ ngati malamulo ambiri aswa. Pamene kuli kwakuti mlandu uliwonse ungapose Blockburger, otsutsa amatsutsa kuti zotsatira zake zimakhala chilango chochuluka chifukwa cha chinthu chimodzi chachikulu. Khotilo lanena kuti, Kuphatikizapo Jeopardy Claus sikuletsa malamulo kuvomereza chilango chambiri m'maweruzipo imodzi, koma limaika milandu yambiri ya mlandu womwewo.

Mbali ina ya mkangano imaphatikizapo katundu wa boma ndi chiwombolo cha ndalama. Khoti Lapamwamba lanena kuti kulephera kwa boma sikumayambitsa kutetezeredwa kwa ngozi kuŵirikiza kaŵiri, koma ngati kulephera kuli kulanga kugamula kuti kukhale chilango chaupandu, kungaletsedwe pambuyo pa chigaŵenga chokhululukidwa kapena chigamulo ( United States v.Ursery .[FLD:1], 1996).

Kumaliza

Maupandu aŵiri amakhalabe maziko a chiweruzo chaupandu cha ku Amereka, kutetezera nzika ku kusalungamitsa kwakukulu kwa kuimbidwa mlandu wofananawo kamodzi. Kumapereka kumaliza, kuchepetsa mphamvu ya boma, ndi kulemekeza umphumphu wa zigamulo za oweruza. Komabe chiphunzitsocho sichili chotheratu; kusiyapo ngati ulamuliro wa aŵiri ndi maupandu olakwa amalola kusinthika m’mikhalidwe ina. Pamene zitokoso zatsopano za lamulo zibuka pa̬ kuchokera ku uchigaŵenga kupita patsogolo ndi umboni wa boma ̬ zikalata ziyenera kulinganiza masomphenya oyambirira a malamulo ndi zenizeni za upandu wamakono.

Kumvetsetsa ngozi ziŵiri nkofunika kwa aliyense wokondwerera lamulo lalamulo, chiweruzo chaupandu, kapena kutetezera zoyenera za munthu. Kaamba ka kuŵerenga kowonjezereka, onani Cornell Legal Information Institute ̱ kusanthula za ngozi ziŵiri , U.S. khoti lophunzitsa , ndi Supreme Court ’ malingaliro mu [[FL:] United States v. Dicodevrence . [1993]) limene linamasulira chidule chofananacho.