Muitiro wakafanira unomira seimwe yembiru dzinogarisa dzegadziriro yemitemo yeAmerica, ichivimbisa kuti simba rehurumende rinoshandiswa zvakanaka uye kuti kodzero dzevanhu hadzibayirwi mukurondwa kweruramisiro. Panzvimbo yadzo, muitiro wakafanira kuti kuronga kwapamutemo kuitiswe mukuwirirana nemitemo yakagadzwa, uye inoisa nzvero yakakomba pamitoo yokudzika mutemo ingashandiswa kuunganidza ufakazi. Ikoku kunokosha zvikuru mumashoko oudzori hwebvunzurudzo, umo kusadzikama kwomuzvarirwo kwesimba pakati pomugariro uye kutungamirira kwomunhu kunogona kutungamirira kukubatwa zvisina kufanira. Nyaya dzinodzo dzinodzorwa mumuviri kunzira dzokushandisa kwamano omuviri kutsika nedzoro yetsika nemitemo inodzorwa. Iyi mitoo inodzorwa mutsika yapamutemo yakaitwa sei kuti ishandiswe kupfurikidza nokuedza kwomutemo.

Kunzwisisa Zvakakodzera

Muitiro wakafanira vimbiso yebumbiro remitemo yakavakirwa muMitemo yeChishanu neMiviri yeMitemo yeU.S. Inopa kuti hapana munhu acha “va neupenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu, pasina muitiro wakafanira womutemo,” nepo Dare reMitemo reMitemo rechigumi namana rinotambanudza iyi kumabasa ehurumende. Pfungwa yacho haina kuchinjika; yakavapo mumazana amakore okududzira kwepamutemo, ichibatanidza zvose zviri zviviri mipimo yemitemo neyakaderera.

Kurongwa Kunofanira Kuitwa

Kusarudza kuti zvii zvinofanira kuitwa nehurumende kuti itevere miitiro yakanaka isati yanyima munhu woupenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu. Mumashoko akapoteredza okunzvera kwoutsotsi, izvi zvinoreva kuti kudzika mutemo unofanira kukudza mitemo yakagadzwa yeziviso, kunzwa, uye kuita zvisarudzo zvisina rusaruro. Nokuda kwokubvunzurudza, muitiro wakafanira unoda kurayira kuti vanofungira kuti vaziviswe kodzero dzavo. Yakadai sekodzero yokuramba vakanyarara uye kodzero yokupa zano, uye kuti mutevedzeri upi noupi wekodzero idzodzo aitwe nokuzvidira, achiziva, uye noungwaru.

Gadziriro Inokosha Inofanira Kuitwa

Semuenzaniso, inodzivirira kodzero dzinokosha pakudzorwa nehurumende, pasinei zvapo nemiitiro inoshandiswa. Dare Rapamusorosoro rakati dzimwe mitoo yakakomba kwazvo zvokuti hapana nzira dzehurumende dzinoshandiswa kubvunzurudza (kubatanidza nzira) dzinovavhiringidza dzinoshayisa fariro inogombedzera. Somuenzaniso, kodzero yokurwisana nokuzviranga kwoutsinye uye kodzero yokurega chirango chechienzi kudzivirira kunenge kwakati kunokanganisa. Mune dzimwe nzira dzinonzi Rochin v. California[FLT:] [52], Dare rakakurumbira raidavira kuti kumanikidza nechirango kuti chitsororo kubvisa pachena “hana uye kukanganisa, kuvamba kuti kuone nenzira inoita kuti kukanganisa kusingagamuchiriki.

Kukura kwenhau kwomuitiro wakafanira kunokoshawo. Mavambo akwo anodzokera shure kuMagna Carta (1215), iyo yakapikira kuti hakuna munhu akasununguka aizo “tapwa kana kuti kuiswa mutorongo... kunze kwerutongeso rwapamutemo rwavezera rake kana kuti nomutemo wenyika.” Mutemo wavose weEngland wakanatsiridzazve idzi dziviriro, uchipesvedzera vatangi veAmerica. Panosvika nguva apo Bill of Rights aitenderwa, muitiro wakafanira waitonzwisiswa sedziviriro inorwisana nesimba rehurumende. Iyi nhaka yakaumba mipimo yazvino uno, ichivimbisa mitoo yazvino unosoneswa sechitambudzo, kutsaurwa kwenguva refu, kana kuti tyisidziro hadzisati dzichingova bedzi dzisina kururama asi dzisingatenderwi.

Kupindirana Kunodyidzana: Zvakasikwa Nenhoroondo

Nzira dzokubvunzurudza dzinonongedzera kunzira dzakagadzirirwa kukurira chido chemunhu chokudzivisa, kazhinji kazhinji kupfurikidza nokurwadziwa kwomuviri, funganyo, kana kuti kushaiwa. Dzakasiana neutsinye huri pachena hwakadai sokurova, kuchera mvura, kana kuti kuvhunduka kwemagetsi (kuwedzera miitiro yamanomano yakadai sokushaya hope, kunyanyova nemanzwiro okuseka, kuuraya kwokutya. Kunyange nzira dzisiri dzomuzvarirwo, dzakadai sokureva nhema pamusoro pouchapupu kana kuti kukuvadza mitezo yemhuri, dzinogona kuva dzinotsiva apo dzinoita zvisarudzo zvapachena.

Nhoroondo

Munhau yose, hurumende dzakashandisa kubvunzurudza kwakakomba kubvisa kureurura noungwaru. MuMiddle Ages, kutambudza kwakanga kuri chishandiso chapamutemo chinogamuchirwa, chaishandiswa kazhinji kazhinji kubudisa “dziviriro” mumhaka dzoutsotsi. Somuenzaniso, Dare reSpenish, raitsamira pamifungo yezvikamu zvamaoko. Pakasvika zana ramakore rechi18, vazivi vakavamba kudenha iyi miitiro, kutaura kuti kureurura kwakawanwa pasi pezviito kwakanga kusina kuvimbika. United States yakaramba zvikuru kutambudzwa mutsika yayo yapakuvamba yapamutemo, kunyange zvazvo kushandiswa kwokudzosasungwa kusina kunyangarika. Mukati mezana ramakore rechi 19 nerechi20, “mazano echiRungu, akadai sokurova, kubvunzurudzwa kwenguva refu, uye kushaiwa kwakakurumbira muzviteshi zvamapurisa eAmerica. Kwakanga kusati kuri pakati pezana ramakore rechi20 apo matare echinonge akavamba kuganhurirwa kumite muganhu, zviteshi zvakateshiro zvakakoso se [5].[5]

Misi ichangobva kupfuura iyi, unyanzvi hwokubatanidza hwakakurukurwa mumashoko ebvunzurudzo yorudzi. Pashure pokudenha kwechi 11 kwaSeptember, hurumende yeUnited States yakabvumira “nzira dzokubvunzurudza nadzo utsotsi” nokuda kwokunyumwira, kubatanidza kutevedza nokudzvinyirira. Vatsoropodzi vakarangarira kuti mitoo iyi yakaputsa muitiro wakafanira nomutemo wamarudzi ose, nepo vatsigiri vakataura kuti yakanga iri madikanwa kudzivisa denho dzenguva yemberi. Gakava racho rinosimbisa kusagadzikana kunopfuurira pakati pechengeteko nekodzero, rwisano iyo inoshuva kuenzana kupfurikidza nemiganhuro yakajeka yepamutemo.

Kugumira Kwazvinoita Unyanzvi Hwokugadzira Zvinhu

Gadziriro inoita kuti pave nemitemo yakawanda inodzivirira inomanikidza kubvunzurudza zvakananga. Iyi miganhu inoiswa mumirau, kugadziridzwa kwebumbiro remitemo, uye mienzaniso yokutonga. Pasi apa pane miitiro inokosha yepamutemo.

Miranda Kodzero Ne Amendedzero Yechishanu

Zvichida muitiro wakakurumbira zvikurusa dare rapamsoro unoreva kuti dziviriro inodzorwa nechakaipa, uye seyakadaro, vanonyumwira vanofanira kuziviswa nezvePuncilment yavo yeFindreverse mukurwisana nokuzvidira uye kudzorwa kwavo kweTB. Arizona. Chisarudzo chinoda mapurisa kunyevera vanofungira kuti vanoramba vachibvunzurudzwa vakanyarara, kuti chinhu chipi nechipi chinotaura kuti vanogona kushandiswa mudare, kuti vane kodzero yokuva mumiririri, uye kuti kana vasingagoni kupiwa zano.

Murairo iganhuriro ine simba pakumanikidzira nemhaka yokuti unopa simba kunyumwira kudzivisa dzvinyiriro. Apo anonyumwirwa anoda maruramiro okunyarara kana kuti kukumbira gweta, kubvunza kunofanira kurega. Ikoku kunobvisa banza rebvunzurudzo yechigarire kana kuti youpengo. Kuwedzera, kudzorwa kwechakaipa kwekodzero idzi kunonzvera: kana mapurisa akashandisa tyisidziro, zvipikirwa, kana kuti kudzongonyedza pfungwa kuparira kunyengera muvengi, kucharangarirwa kuva kusina maturo. Muitiro waparirwa nokudaro unovimbisa kuti miitiro youngwarutsigiri haagoni kushandiswa kudzivisa dziviriro huru mukurwisana neiyi maruramiro okuzvidzora.

Kudzivirirwa Pakuzviparadzanisa

Chirevo cheFindre Amendment chinorambidza hurumende kuzvimanikidza kuva chapupu chokuzvipomera. Ikoku kunopfuura nyeverowo zvadzo; kunoreva kuti ufakazi hupi nohupi hunowanwa kupfurikidza nokumanikidzwa kwomuviri kana kuti kwendangariro hunofungika nenzira yomuzvarirwo. Dare Rapamusoro rakava nechokwadi chapakarepo kuti kureurura kunofanira kuva kwakasununguka uye kwokuzvidira, kwete chibereko che “pesvedzero ipi neipi isina kufanira.” [[FLT:] Mu [[FLT] Spano v. New York[FLT:] [1959], Dare rakashandura kupwirira uko mapurisa akasumwa kumaawa masere okubvunzurudzwa kunopfuurira, kusati kuri muuyo wemirangariro yake. Dare rakataura kuti muitiro wakafanira apo “muitiro womutemo wavakuru vakuru vakuru vakuru vanopfuura miganho yemapurisa anobvunzurudzwa.

Iyi dzidziso inoparira mupimo wakajeka: kana kuchengetwa kwomutemo kuchishandisa unyanzvi hunobatanidza vatano nechero kunenge kunyimwa kurongerwa kurara, zvokudya, kana kuti tarisiro yokurapwa, kana kuti kuvadziko inotyisidzira — kureurura kupi nokupi kunoguma kunofungidzirwa kuva kusina maturo. Mutoro ipapo unochinja kutoratidza kuoma kwekupesana kusingapanikiriki. Iyi mhinganidzo yemitemo inodzivisa kumanikidzwa nemhaka yokuti kunyange kana kureurura kukawanwa, sezvingabvira kunenge kuchibviswa, kuchipa nhamburiko yacho pasina maturo.

Kurambidzwa Kwokutambudzwa Noutsinye, Kwechienzi, Kana Kuti Kubatwa Noutsinye

Dare reReformation reSendrey rinorambidza “zvirango zvechisimba nezvisingawanzoitiki,” uye nepo zvichinyanya kushanda kuchirango pashure pokupwiswa, nheyo dzaro dzinozivisawo miganhu yakafanira pakubvunzurudzwa kusati kwaitwa. Uyezve, Gwero reChibvumirano raClaus rinorambidza mufambiro uno “kushora hana.” Sezvinotaurwa mu Rochin] [, kupomba chitunha chinofungidzirwa chishatisa kwazvo. Mutemo weSangano unorambidza zvakajeka kutambudzwa pasi pe18 U.C. 2340, unorondedzera kutambudzwa sechiito chinoitwa nemukuru mukuru mukuru wehurumende anoparira marwadzo omuviri kana kuti ndangariro kana kuti kutambura. Chiratidzo chinoshatisa zvose zviri zviviri mudzimba dzomumba uye kunyanyisa.

Mutemo wenyika yose unosimbisa izvi zvirambidzo. United Nations Convention Against Torture (CAT), yakatenderwa neU.S. muna 1994, inoda mapati kudzivisa kutambudzwa uye utsinye, umhuka, kana kuti kubatwa kwakaipa. Nepo U.S. yaita kusabvumirana pamusoro perondedzero ye “matongerwe, mukono, kana kuti kubatwa zvisina kufanira,” nheyo dzinoda muitiro uchiri dzinorambidza unyanzvi hwakawanda hunokundikana kutambudza, hwakadai sokuzvinyima kana kuti kuuraya kwokunyomba. [FLT: 0] Mu [[FT:] Matter of Guantmo Bay babytes , matare anoshandisa muitiro ukafanira kumipimo yehondo, anoshandisa kutaura ikoko kunowirirana.

Kutonga Kwokuparadza Nokutonga

Imwe yemiganhu inobudirira zvikurusa iganhuriro yemiitiro inoshanda zvikurusa imitemo yokubvisa. Kushandisa ufakazi hunowanwa mukuputswa kwamaruramiro ebumbiro remitemo. Mu Mapp v. Ohio [1961], Dare rakashandisa mutemo kumatare ehurumende, richiva noufakazi hupi nohupi hunowanwa zvisiri pamutemo husingagoni kushandiswa pakutongwa. Kubvunzurudzwa, uku kunoreva kuti kureurura kunobviswa nokumanikidza (kunyange kusiri kutambudza). Mutemo unoparira sundo yakasimba yokudzivisa kuchengetwa kwomutemo kuti udzivise unyanzvi hwenhau, nemhaka yokuti ufakazi hupi nohupi hunoshatirwa nenzira isiri yapamutemo, hunogona kushatisa chiitiko chose.

Kutarisira dare muitiro unoshandiswa kupfurikidza nawo mutoo wakafanira. Mukati mekutongwa kusati kwaitwa, magweta anodzivirira anogona kudenha kusakwanisa kureurura kupfurikidza nokumanikidza. Ipapo vatongi vanova nokunzwa kwapachena (vanowanzonzi Manda kana kuti kuoma kwenzwiswo, apo vanoisa ufakazi pamusoro pebvunzo. Zvisaririra zvinobatanidza zera rinofungirwa, ungwaru, uye mugariro wendangariro; nguva nemigariro yokubvunza; uye dzvinyiriro ipi neipi yomuviri inoshandiswa. Kana mutongi akawana chiteshi, kureurura kunodzvinyirirwa. Uku kuchengetwa kwesuo kunovimbisa kuti muitiro unongovawo zvawo zvawo wogaro asi unoitwa nenzira inoshanda muchinoitika chiri chose chose.

Zviratidzo Zvinoderedza Miganhu Yegadziriro Yaidiwa

Zvisarudzo zvinoverengeka zveDare Rapamusoro Zvikurusa zvakajekesa ukama huri pakati pomuitiro wakafanira nebvunzurudzo dzinowirirana.Idzi nhau dzinogovera mienzaniso chaiyo yokuti matare anoshandisa sei nheyo dzakurukurwa pamusoro apa.

Brown v. Mississippi[[FL:1] (1936)

Mhaka iyi yaibatanidza varimi vatatu vatema vaikwidzwa nemasimba masimba avo vakarohwa kusvikira vareurura kuti vauraye. Hurumende yacho yakapa kureurura, uye vaipomerwa mhaka. Dare Rapamusoro rakarambana, richitaura kuti “kamuri rokutambudzikira nenzvimbo yokutambudzikira zvingasatsiviwa nokuda kwenzvimbo youchapupu.” Dare rakazivisa kuti kureurura kunobviswa nechisimba kunoputsa muitiro wakafanira, sezvo ivo nenzira yomuzvarirwo vasina kuvimbika uye vanogumbura“ nheyo dziya dzinokosha dzorusununguko neruramisiro idzo dziri pasi pemasangano edu ose ehurumende nezvamatongerwe enyika." Iyi yakanga iri mhaka inokosha yapakuvamba iyo yakaisa chikuva chedziviriro gare gare gare.

[[FOL:0] Miranda v. Arizona[ (1966)

Sezvakurukurwa pamusoro apa, Mira yakatanga chinodikanwa chenyevero dzamapurisa. Dare rakaziva kuti kubvunzurudza mwana “munzira inowirirana” uye kuti pasina dziviriro dzakajeka, vanonyumwira vanganzwa vamanikidzwa kutaura. Chisarudzo chacho chakaparira mutemo wakajeka wakanatswa mumakumi amakore asi unoramba uri pakati pomuitiro wakafanira. Nepo vatsoropodzi vakarangarira kuti Maranda [ inodzivisa kuchengetwa kwomutemo, inoratidza kuti yave ine tapuro duku pakunzvera kwapamutemo, nepo zvichideredza zvikuru kupararira kwegadziriro dzamaitiro.

[[FUT:0] Cavez v. Martinez (2003)

Nyaya iyi yakataurwa kana mutengi akanga asati apomerwa aigona kukwirira mhaka nokuda kwomuitiro wakafanira wokuputswa pashure pebvunzurudzo yekosi. Oliverio Martinez akapfurwa nemapurisa uye gare gare akabvunzurudzwa noutsinye paaiva muchipatara, achifuratira kunyunyuta kwake kwokurwadziwa. Dare rakatonga kuti dare reSaint Procession Clausnease harina kutyorwa nemhaka yokuti Martinez haana kutongwa. Kunyange zvakadaro, nyaya yacho yakasimbisa miganhu yebasa rakafanira: inodzivirira zvikurukuru chiito chehurumende chakaipa mumashoko outsotsi.

Kutapura Miitiro Yokumanikidza Mutemo

Miganhu yakafanira yakachinja nzira iyo mapurisa anoitisa nayo bvunzurudzo. Kutyisidzira kwokudzvinyirira ufakazi kwakasunda masangano anodzikamisa mutemo kugamuchira gadziriro dzokurovedza idzo dzinosimbisa unyanzvi hwetsika, hwakavakirwa panzvimbo pokumanikidza. Miitiro yakanakisisa yanhasi inonangidzira pakuvaka chivimbo, kushandisa mibvunzo inogadziriswa pachena, uye kudzivisa zvipikirwa kana kuti tyisidziro. “Reid Technique,” apo pane dzimwe nguva inotsoropodzwa, inobatanidza dziviriro dzakadai senyevero dzekodzero dzavo nokudzivisa simba romuviri. Mukupesana, mitoo yekoshevedzero yakafanana ne“ mitoo yemvura ” haisi bedzi isati iri isiri inotenderwa papamutemo asi inoparira zvikanganiso zvenhema.

Nzvero inotsigira murangariro wokuti kumanikidza hakushandi. Nzvero yeInnocence Project yakawana kuti kureurura kwenhema kunoitika muinenge 25% yezvitendero zvisina kururama zvakachinjwa gare gare noufakazi hweDNA, kazhinji kazhinji nemhaka yokubvunzurudza kwomubatanidzwa. Kudzivirira kwakafanira kunobetsera kuderedza kusaruramisira kwakadaro kupfurikidza nokuda kukwidza nokuongorora nokuongorora kwedare. Uyezve, kusimbisa kuzviisa pasi kwapamutemo kwakatungamirira kuchinjo dzetsika, dzakadai sokunyorwa kwapamutemo kwokubvunzurudza nhapwanya. Sezvinenge 2024, maruwa anopfuura 2024 uye Ruwa rweColumbia ane mitemo inoda kunyorwa kwebvunzo dzemagetsi murutivi rwose. Kunyora pamutemo kunogovera ufakazi hweizvo zvakaitika, kuchiita zvakaoma kuti mapurisa anyore kana kuti aonerwe mashoko asingavinzverwi.

Vamwe vakataura kuti ganhuriro dzakafanira dzinodzivisa zvisakafanira ganhuriro dzokuita kuti mutemo utsive mano okupedza mhaka. Zvisinei, gadziriro yebumbiro remitemo hairambidzi kubvunza kunobudirira(chinongorambidza bedzi mitoo inokurira rusununguko. Kudzikamisa kwomutemo kunogona kushandisa ufakazi hunoratidza kuparira kusawirirana, uye kushandisa dzvinyiriro nyoro. Chinokosha ndechokuti chisarudzo chemushonga wokutaura chinofanira kuva chibereko chezvavanofungira, kwete chetyisidziro kana kuti marwadzo. Mu Oregon v. Elstad [1885]), Dare rakacherekedza kuti “mapurisa angapinda munyengetedzo nekurukurirano nenzira yapamutemo, kwenguva refu sezvo asingachengeti kuda kunyumwiswa.

mhedziso

Muitiro wakafanira idziviriro inokosha pakushandiswa zvisina kufanira kwemitoo yebvunzurudzo inonyandura. Kupfurikidza nedziviriro dzinobatanidza muMitemo yeshanu, yechitanhatu, uye ye145 yeMitemo yemitemo yeU.S. inovimbisa kuti kuchengetwa kwomutemo hakugoni kutendeukira kukutambudza, tyisidziro, kana kuti kudzorwa kwendangariro kubudisa mashoko. Miranda nyevero, dzidziso yokutambudza, kurambidza kutambudza, uye kuganhura mutemo pamwe chete zvinoparira mipimo inoparira mipimo yemitemo inoganhurira miitiro yemitemo. Kutarisira kwomutemo kunoshanda secherekedzo yokupedzisira, kubvisa ufakazi hwakashati namabasa apamutemo anozvidavirira. Nepo kurukurirano pamusoro pemitoo yokubvunzurudza mumugariro wenhau yorudzi inopfuurira, nheyo inokosha inoramba iripo kurangarirwa nechiremera neruremekedzo, kunyange pakutsvaka kunzvera utsotsi. Iyi mitoo isati iri nzira isinawo kururamisira.

[[[Nhamba: 0] Revospectal:[