Kunzwisisa Gadziriro Yokutonga: Basa Redare Revatongi

Gadziriro dzavakuru vedare ikongiriro yemiitiro yazvino uno yemitemo, ichigovera gadziriro yakarongwa neinodeya kutemwa nokuda kwokutarisirwa kweruramisiro. Kupfurikidza nokuonesa mwero yakajeka yechiremera noudzori, vakuru vakuru vanovimbisa kuti mhaka dzinobatwa zvakanaka, mibvunzo yapamutemo inopedzwa netsinhirano, uye kodzero dzevanhu dzinodzivirirwa kupfurikidza negadziriro yakarongeka yokukwirira. Iyi nyaya inonzvera mwero yakasiana-- siyana yechiremera chokutonga, mabasa edare rimwe nerimwe mukati mechinzvimbo chavakuru, uye ukoshi hukuru hweicho hweichirongwa ichi mukuchengeta mutemo. Kana uri mudzidzi womutemo, nyanzvi yemitemo, kana kuti kungofarira bedzi nzira iyo dare rinoshanda nayo, nzwisiso yakakwana yedare inodikanwa kunzwisisa simba gurusa redare rokutonga.

Kutonga Kunoitirwa Ruramisiro Mudare Here?

Gadziriro dzavafundisi dzedare dzinonongedzera kugadziriro yakarongeka yematare mukati mechiremera chapamutemo, inorairwa nechiremera chawo, chiremera, uye rudzi rwenhau dzaanobata. Papakati paro, vakuru vakuru vanodzora vanotanga musiyano wemurairo nenzvimbo yokutanga: zvisarudzo zvinobva kumatare makuru zvinosunga matare maduku, uye nhau dzinokwira dzichikwira kubva kumatare anotongwa kusvikira kumatare akakwirira zvikurusa. Iyi dare rinodzivisa nyongano kupfurikidza nokuvimbisa kuti nhau dzapamutemo dzakafanana dzinobatwa nenzira youviri uye kuti zvikanganiso zvamadare akaderera zvinogona kururamiswa namasangano makuru, ane chiremera zvikuru.

Ganhuriro dzavafundisi dzinoumbwa zvikurukuru nepyramid, nechivako chakafara chematare anotonga ayo anotanga kunzwa nhau, rudungwe rwapakati rwematare epakati, uye dare rimwe rakakwirira zvikurusa pamugumo. Mukuwedzera, matare chaiwo angavapo pamwero yakasiana- siyana, anoratidzira kudikanwa kwounyanzvi munzvimbo dzakati dzomutemo. Mazita chaiwo nesangano rematare anosiana nenyika negamuchidzanwa remitemo — somuenzaniso, United States ine divitio rehurumende iri pedyo nehurumende yehritaric, nepo United Kingdom ine chivako chakabatana nematare akasiana eEngland neWales, Scotland, uye Northern Ireland. Pasinei zvapo neiyi misiyano, nheyo huru dzedare — ruremekedzo nokuda kwemiedzo, kuhwirudzura, uye miganhuro yenyika yose.

Kunzwisisa dare ravakuru vakuru redare hakusati kuri bedzi muitiro wedzidzo; kunotapura zvakananga nzira iyo vatongi vanoshandisa nayo gadziriro yemitemo, nzira iyo vatongi vanoronga nayo nhau, uye nzira iyo vatongi vanodudzira nayo mutemo. Somuenzaniso, chisarudzo chakaitwa neDare Gurusa reUnited States chinotakura chiremera chinobatira pamatare ose ehurumende nehurumende panhau dzehurumende, nepo chisarudzo chakaitwa nedare rinotonga rehurumende chisina tapuro inobatira kupfuura mhaka iyoyo chaiyo. Ganhuriro yedare rinoumba zvose zviri zviviri zuva nezuva kusvikira kuzuva rimwe nerimwe redare uye kukura kwenguva refu kwedzidziso yapamutemo.

Mativi Edare Rinodzora: Kuputsika Kunodonongodzwa

Nepo nhamba chaiyoiyo yemwero inogona kusiana, matare mazhinjisa edare anobatanidza zvikamu zvikuru zvitatu: matare okutonga, matare edare, uye dare rapamusorosoro. Mumativi akawanda, munewo dare rapakati rinogara pakati pematare anotongwa nedare rakakwirira zvikurusa. matare echienzi anoumba mapazu okuwedzera ayo anotonga nhau dzakati. Pasi apa, tinonzvera mwero mumwe nomumwe muudzame, kubatanidza simba rawo, mabasa, uye miitiro chaiyo.

Matare Okutonga: Fandesheni Yetsika Yokutonga

Dare redare, rinowanzonongedzerwa kwariri sematare echinoitika chokutanga kana kuti chiremera chapakuvamba, ndimo umo kutonga kwapamutemo kunovamba. Iwo mwero wakaderera zvikurusa muvafundisi, asi kusati kuchitongova chinhu chinokosha zvikuru — kutaura idi, chiverengero chikuru chenhau chinovamba ndokuguma pamwero uyu. matare edare ane mutoro wokuwana maidi enhau, kushandisa mutemo wakafanira, uye kupa chisarudzo kana kuti rutongeso. Anobata nharo dzose dzevagari vemo (zvakadai sezvibvumirano, kuvadziko yomunhu oga, uye mutemo wemhuri) uye kudenha kwapa mhaka (kubva mumhoshorodzo dzakakomba dzakakomba).

Mudare rokutonga, ufakazi hunopiwa kupfurikidza nouchapupu, magwaro, uye zviratidziro zvomuviri. Mutongi anotarisira muitiro wacho, mitemo pakuramba, uye anorairidza vatongi (kana aripo) pamutemo. Vatongi, uyewo vanoshanda seidi 93finder, vanosarudza chakaitika chaizvoizvo chakavakirwa paufakazi. Mukutonga kwebhenji, mutongi anosarudzawo maidi. Muuyo wedare rinotongwa rinopfuurira unogona kuva mhaka youtsotsi kana kuti kusunungurwa mumhaka youtsotsi, kana kuti rutongeso rwebato rimwe mumhaka yavagari vemo.

Dare redare rakawanda rinokamuraniswazve mumatare makuru anodzora uye matare ehurumende akaganhurirwa. Matare makuru — akadai sematare makuru, matare enhunhu, kana kuti matare oruwa — anogona kunzwa mhaka ipi neipi isina kugoverwa zvakananga kune dzimwe matare. Matare emitemo akaganhurirwa, mukupesana, anoganhurirwa kumhaka dzakati, dzakadai semhosva duku, mhosva dzomumugwagwa, kana kuti gakava rehurumende. Iyi dare rinobetsera kudzora mhaka uye kuvimbisa kuti nhau dziri nyore dzinopedzwa nokukurumidza zvikuru uye nenzira isina kurongwa, nepo nhau dzakaoma kunzwisisa dzinogamuchira zvisaririra zvedare guru rehurumende.

Mune dzimwe nyika, nyaya dzevaduku, dzemhuri, kana kuti dzevatungamiriri vematare eU.S. dzinoratidza kuti panodiwa unyanzvi hwokuisa pfungwa padare.

Matare Okubvunzurudza: Chikamu Chokutanga Chokuhwirudzura

Hadzisi zviremera zvose zvine matare anopfuurira, asi uko aripo, zvinoita basa rinokosha mukurerutsa mutoro padare rapamusoro zvikurusa. Intermediate appenellate matare — anowanzonzi matare ezvikumbiro, magadziko makuru okukwirira, kana kuti matare makuru okukwirira — inzwa zvikumbiro zvinobva muzvisarudzo zvedare rinotongwa. Basa razvo guru kuhwirudzura chinyorwa chedare rakaderera nokuda kwezvikanganiso zvapamutemo, kwete kuhwirudzura maidi.

Kukwirira kwakavakirwa zvikurukuru pakutaura kwokuti dare rokutonga raishandisa zvisina kufanira mutemo, rakabvuma ufakazi husina kururama, raipa miraidzo isina kururama yedare rinobetsera, kana kuti rakaita mhosho dzakatapura muuyo. Dare rinohwirudzura mashoko okutonga, akanyorwa kubva kumativi ose ari maviri, uye pane dzimwe nguva anonzwa nharo dzinotaurwa nomuromo. Pashure pokurangarira. dare rapamhinai, dare rinogona kusimbisa (rinochengeta) chisarudzo chapakuvamba, richichinja (chidzokera shure), kana kuti kudzosazve (chidzosa) mhaka nokuda kwokumwezve kuwirirana nechisarudzo charo. Mune dzimwe nhau, dare redare rinotonga ringashandura rutongeso pasina pamutemo.

Matare eparameterte anoparirawo kutangwa kwomutemo kupfurikidza nokubudisa mirangariro yakanyorwa inojekesa nheyo dzapamutemo. Nepo iyi mirangariro ichibatira mukati mesimba renyika redare (kazhinji kazhinji ruwa rwakawanda kana kuti nzvimbo yehurumende), inogona kuva inonyengetedza mudzimwe nharaunda. Mugadziriro yehurumende yeUnited States, matare 13 ezvikumbiro anogona kushanda somwero mukurusa wematare ose eruwa ehurumende, uye zvisarudzo zvavo zvinobatira kunze kwokunge zvaputswa neDare gurusa. Nenzira yakafanana, maruwa akawanda ane matare ehurumende anoramba ari pakati pokubata kukura, achivimbisa kuti dare gurusa rehurumende rinogona kuisa ngwariro pamibvunzo mikuru yapamutemo.

Dare Rapamusoro Zvikurusa: Dare Rokupedzisira

Pamugumo wedare ravakuru vakuru unogara dare guru (kana kuti dare rebumbiro remitemo mune dzimwe gadziriro). Iri ndiro chiremera chakakwirira zvikurusa chedare, uye zvisarudzo zvaro ndezvokupedzisira panhau dzomutemo mukati moudzori hwaro. Dare rapamusoro harisati richiwanzonzwa nhau sedare rinotonga; panzvimbo pezvo, rinohwirudzura zvisarudzo zvakabva mumatare akaderera, zvikurukuru kupedza rwisano pakati pematare apakati penhambo nenhambo, kusarudza nhau dzemitemo dzinokosha, kana kuti kududzira mutemo.

Kusvika kudare guru kazhinji kazhinji imhaka yedare. Mumiitiro mizhinjisa, dare rinosarudza kuti imhakai yokunzwa kupfurikidza nomuitiro wakadai sechinosarudzwa checertiori (U.S.), kusiya kukwirira (Canada, England), kana kuti kukwirira panhau yomutemo. dare ringaramba kuhwirudzurwa mumhaka zhinjisa — kazhinji kazhinji dzinopfuura 95% — kusiya chisarudzo chedare rapasi zvikuru munzvimbo. Nhau bedzi dzinomutsa mibvunzo inokosha yemitemo, dzinobatanidza kurondedzerwa kunorwisana kwomutemo pakati pematare akaderera, kana kuti nhau dzefariro yavose dzinodzokororwa zvizere.

Apo dare guru rinonzwa nhau, rinogamuchira chaizvoizvo zvikamu zvakapetwa uye rinonzwa nharo dzamashoko dzinobva kumapati, pamwe chete neanicus curiae (shamwari yedare) zvipfupi kubva kumapoka anofarira. Dare ipapo rinopa murangariro wakanyorwa wokuti kwete bedzi kusarudza mhaka yakananga asiwo kugadza muenzaniso unosunga matare ose akaderera. Iyi muenzaniso unova rutivi rwegadziriro yemitemo yapamutemo, inoumba kuti mhaka dzakafanana dzichapedzwa sei munguva yemberi. Mienzaniso isingacherechedzwi inobatanidza zvisarudzo zveDare gurusa reU.S.

Dzimwe nyika dzine dare rakasiyana rebumbiro remitemo rinoshanda pamusoro kana kuti parutivi pedare remitemowo zvaro, rakadai seDare reMabumbiro Emitemo reGermany.

Matare Anokosha: Ane Simba Rokuongorora Nyaya Dzakaoma Kunzwisisa

Kupfuura vakuru vakuru vehurumende, gadziriro dzapamutemo dzakawanda dzinogadza matare chaiwo kubata mativi akati omutemo anoda unyanzvi hwakadzama, chisarudzo chekukurumidza, kana kuti mutoo wakasiana. Aya matare angavapo pakutonga kana kuti mwero wedare uye kazhinji kazhinji ane vatongi vakatsaurirwa nerovedzo chaiyo. Marudzi anozivikanwa anobatanidza:

  • Dare Romhuri[[FLT: 1] — Tarisa chatanuro, kuchengetwa kwavana, kurerwa, uye masimba masimba omumba. Idzo dzinowanzosimbisa kutaurirana nefariro dzakanakisisa dzomwana pamusoro pokupa mhaka.
  • [ Dare reJuvenile[[FT:1] — Bata navana vanopomerwa mhaka (kutendeka) kana kuti avo vanoda dziviriro. Nhau dzavo dziri pakuvandudza panzvimbo pechirango.
  • Dare reTax — Pedza gakava pakati pavateresi nezviremera zvemitero zvehurumende. Zvinoshandisa mitero yakaoma nemirau.
  • Dare reBankruptic [ — Tarisa nhau dzinonyungudutsa, kubatanidza Chitsauko 7, 11, uye 13 masherufu mugadziriro yeU.S.
  • [[FLT: 0] Dare roUtarisiri — Zvisarudzo zvehwirudzuro zvinoitwa namasangano ehurumende, zvakadai sematare okutambira vatami, zvikumbiro zvechengeteko yenzanga, kana kuti masangano anoraira.
  • [[[NHAU]] Dare reChirevo [ — mutemo wehondo wokumanikidza nechirango mukati memauto akashongedzerwa.

Matare chaiwo anogona kuvandudza kushanda zvakanaka kupfurikidza nokugadzirira mhaka kuvatongi vanonzwisisa mifungo yomutemo, kuderedza dzvinyiriro yemahotera pamatare makuru, uye kugovera miuyo inowirirana zvikuru. Zvisinei, iwo anopinzawo mungozi kuparira dare rakaparadzana umo mapazi akasiyana - siyana anova nedudziro dzomutemo dzinopesana. Kuderedza ikoku, matare makurusa anoramba ari pasi poutarisiri wedare rehurumende.

Mafambire Anoita Matambudziko Anoita Zvipatara: Nzira Yokukwirira

Kunzwisisa kuti mhaka inofambira sei kubva kudare rinotongwa kumusoro kunovhenekera sei gadziriro yose. Rangarira kukwirira mhaka kwavagari vemo chaikoiko muhurumende ine mipimo mitatu:

  1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
  2. Dare reIntermediate Appellate — Kurasikirwa kwepapatika kunoisa chiziviso chekukwirira, kutaurira kuti dare rinotonga rakaita chikanganiso chapamutemo. Dare redare harinzwi ufakazi hutsva; rinohwirudzura chinyorwa chokutonga nenharo dzapamutemo. Kungasimbisa, kuchinja, kana kuti kudzokorodza nhau yacho.
  3. Dare Rapamusoro-soro 3: Dare Gurusa — Kana boka richiri risingagutswi, kungakumbira dare gurusa nokuda kwokuhwirudzura. Dare guru rinosarudza kana richifanira kunzwa nhau yacho. Kana rikaramba, chisarudzo chedare redare rinotonga chinomira. Kana richibvuma, dare rapamusoro rinopa chisarudzo chokupedzisira icho chinobatanidza matare ose akaderera musimba raro.

Kuyerera uku kunovimbisa kuti zvikanganiso zvinobatwa ndokururamiswa, nepo kuchigoverawo dare rapamusoro zvikurusa nebanza rokujekesa mutemo. Muhurumende dzisina dare rapakati, kukwirira kunobva zvakananga mudare rinotongwa kuenda kudare gurusa, iro rinogona kuremedza dare rapamusorosoro. Ndicho chikonzero nei gadziriro zhinjisa dzazvino uno dzakawedzera mwero wapakati.

Kunokosha kucherekedza kuti kukwirira hakusati kuri “kutongwa kwechipiri.” matare edare rinotonga anoteerera zviwanwa zveidi zvedare kutoti achinge akanganisa zvakajeka. Ngwariro iri pakuti mutemo wakashandiswa zvakanaka here. Uku kunonoka kunodzivisa mativi asingagumi kubva kumaidi mamwe chetewo.

Kukosha Kwokuva Mutongi Anodzora: Chikonzero Nei Kuchikosha

Vatungamiriri vedare havasi chirongwa chokuzvifungira chokutonga; chinobatira mabasa anokosha anoverengeka anotsigira kutonga kwomutemo:

  • Kusachinja uye kudeya kutaurwa — zvisarudzo zvedare rapamusoro zvinoparira mienzaniso inobatira iyo inotungamirira matare akaderera, magweta, uye vagari vemo. Ikoku kunobvumira vanhu kuziva mutemo pachine nguva mberi ndokuronga zvinhu zvavo maererano.
  • [[Ntodzi] Kubvisa Zvikanganiso — Muitiro wakawanda unogovera mipimo yokuhwirudzura nokururamisa zvikanganiso zvinoitwa nematare anotonga, uchidzivirira vanhu pazvitendero zvisina kururama kana kuti rutongeso rusina kururama.
  • Resource Alpace — nhau dzakapfava uye dzinokosha zvishoma dzinogona kupedzwa nokukurumidza pamwero wokutonga, nepo mibvunzo yapamutemo yakaoma yakachengeterwa matare makuru ane nguva yakawanda nounyanzvi.
  • Kutanga Kuisa Kufunga — Kupfurikidza nokukwirira kupfurikidza nematare apakati, dare rapamusoro zvikurusa rinorega kuhwirudzura nhau iri yose. Ikoku kunochengeta mano aro okunangidzira ngwariro panhau dzapamutemo dzine tapuro hurusa.
  • .Legitacy and Public Vience — Gadziriro inooneka, yakakwirira zvikurusa umo zviremera zvinowanzobudisa mirangariro inokudza chivimbo chavanhu mudare. Vagari vanogona kuona kuti zvisarudzo zvakavakirwa pamutemo, kwete pafungidziro.
  • Kuumbwa kwoMutemo [ — Pasina dare ravafundisi, matare aitonga akasiana - siana angadudzira mutemo mumwe chetewo munzira dzinorwisana. dare rapamusoro rinogona kupedza idzi rwisano, kuva nechokwadi chokuti mutemo unoshandiswa zvakafanana musimba rose.

Somuenzaniso, mugadziriro yehurumende yakafanana neUnited States, dare rehurumende rinobata nhau dzezuva zhinjisa, apo dare rehurumende rinobata nenhau dzehurumende nomutemo wehurumende nebumbiro remitemo. Dare Gurusa reUnited States rinogara pamusoro pegadziriro dzose dziri mbiri, richivimbisa kuti mutemo wehurumende unodudzirwa nenzira inotsinhirana munyika yose. Nenzira yakafanana, mugadziriro yeboka yakafanana nereFrance, Cour de Cassation (Chourtation of Cassation) inovimbisa kutsanangurwa kwakafanana kwomutemo wemitemo yehurumende mumatare ose ehurumende neutsotsi.

Kutarisira Vatungamiriri: Kuitira Hanya Kunoshanda Vadzidzi Navazvipiri

Nokuda kwavadzidzi vemitemo, kunzwisisa dare ravakuru vakuru ndechimwe chezvirongwa zvokutanga zvokuvaka dzidzo yapamutemo. Rinozivisa kuti unorava sei mutemo wenhau — pashure pezvose, chisarudzo chakabva kuDare Rapamusoro zvikurusa chine ukoshi hukuru zvikuru kupfuura mutongo wedare rinotonga. Kuziva kuti idare ripi rakapa muenzaniso kunokubetsera kuwana chiremera charo. Kuvanetsi, vakuru vakuru vakuru vanoraira nzira: Unofanira kunyora nhau yacho here? Ndimii iri mikana yokubudirira pakukwidza?

Pakunzvera mutemo, nguva dzose cherechedza mwero wedare noukuru hwenhau. Manyuko mazhinji apamutemo anobvumira kuputira nedare. Uyewo, ziva kuti dare ravafundisi rinogona kutapura mupimo wehwirudzuro: mibvunzo yomutemo inohwirudzurwa [ nonnov , nepo zviwanwa zveidi zvinohwirudzurwa nokuda kwemhosho yakajeka kana kuti ufakazi hwakajeka. Iyi mipimo inoumba sei matare anosvika mhaka.

Kana uri mushandisi wemitemo asingaiti wirirano negadziriro yemitemo, kunzwisisa mutungamiriri wehurumende kunobetsera kuziva chokukarira. Somuenzaniso, kana uri mukwikwidzani kudare, unofanira kuziva kuti kurasikirwa pamuedzo hakurevi mugumo — une maruramiro okukwirira (mukuwirirana neganhuriro). Nenzira yakapesana, kana dare rapamusoro zvikurusa muhurumende yako ratosarudza nhau yakafanana newe, mikana yako yokubudirira pakutongwa inoderera zvikuru.

Kusiyana - siyana Kwemitemo: Mutemo Wavose Unopesana.

Nepo chimiro chikuru chetriartite (kuedza, kurova kwapakati) chinozivikanwa navose, pane misiano mikuru pakati pomutemo wavose namagamuchidzanwa evagari vemo. Mumiitiro yavose yemitemo (mutoo, U.S., UK, Canada, Australia), dzidziso ye stare decis [pakare] [pakarepo]]. Zvisarudzo zvapamusoro zvinobatira, uye vakuru vakuru vakuru vedare vanofanira kutevera kutonga kwematare pamusoro pazvo. Nokudaro vakuru vakuru vakuru vanofanira kushandura shanduka-shanduka yomutemo kupfurikidza nenhau .

Mumiitiro yemitemo yavagari vemo (mutoo, France, Germany, Japan), vafundisi vavapowo, asi muenzaniso hausungiswi nenzira yapamutemo munzira imwe cheteyo. Matare anokarirwa kushandisa mabumbiro emitemo akanyorwa nemirau. Zvisinei, mukushanda, zvisarudzo zvedare rapamusoro — zvikurukuru kubva kumatare makuru kana kuti emitemo yapamutemo — zvinonyengetedzwa zvikuru uye hazviwanzofuratirwi. Masangano emitemo evagari vemo kazhinji kazhinji ane dare rapamutemo rakaparadzana kunze kwedare rejaji, uye nhau dzehurumende dzingaenda kuvakuru vakuru vakuru vakuru vakuru vematare ehurumende (se Conse d’État). Mibato yehwaro mikuru yedzokororesa nevunisochani inobvumikisa kuti inoramba iripo, asi miitiro yakasiana.

Uyezve, mamwe mativi, akadai seUnited Kingdom, ane chirongwa chakabatana chedare chinofukidza zvose zviri zviviri zvikumbiro zvoutsotsi nezvinoitwa navanhu. Dare reUK Supreme (rakagadzwa muna 2009) rakatsiva Imba yaMadzimu sedare rakakwirira zvikurusa. Pasi apa ndiro Dare rokukwirira (rakapesana nereCriminal Divisions) uye Dare Rapamusoro, iro rinewo simba pamusoro pematare akaderera. Kunzwisisa iyi purogiramu dzakananga kunokosha nokuda kwefundo ipi neipi yomutemo.

Mugumo: Chitendero Sechinodzivirira Kururamisira

Ganhuriro yedare inopfuura zvikuru chatiwo zvayo yesangano. Igadziriro yakasanogadzirwa inowirirana nokudikanwa kwokuhwirudzura, inoremekedza unyanzvi hwemitengo yakasiana - siana, uye inosimudzira dare rinowirirana, rinongurirwa pamutemo. Kudare rinotonga umo dare rinotonga rinotanga kunzwa gakava kudare guru rinodudzira mutemo, mwero mumwe nomumwe unoita basa rakasiyana uye rinokosha. Munhu upi noupi anotsvaka kunzwisisa kuti ruramisiro inoitwa sei — angava mudzidzi, nyanzvi yepamutemo, kana kuti mugari wemo akadzidza — kunzwisisa kwakasimba kwedare redare redare kunokosha. Inogovera mepu yatinofamba nayo parwendo rwokutonga, ichivimbisa kuti mhaka yose inogamuchira mutemo wayo pasi pomutemo, uye mutemo umene unoramba wakasimba.

[[[Nto:0] Kurava kwakawedzera neZviwanikwa:[