Mavambo uye Kufambira Mberi Kwegadziriro Yaifanira Kuitwa naClaus

The The Battle Procession Claus, yakabatanidzwa muzvose zviri zviviri Mitemo yeshanu neyegumi namana kuUnited States Constitution, inomira sechisakiso chorusununguko rweAmerica. Midzi yayo inodzika munhau yemitemo yeEngland, yakakurumbira zvikurusa kuMagna Carta ye1215, iyo yakazivisa kuti hakuna munhu akasununguka angagona kubatwa, kuiswa mutorongo, kana kuti kudzingwa “kunze kworutongeso rwapamutemo rwavaenzani vake kana kuti nomutemo wenyika." Iyi nheyo //hurumende inofanira kugadza miitiro yapamutemo isati yanyima munhu woupenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti chinhu chazvino unopindukira mumurangariro wazvino uno uno.

Findth Amendment, yakabvumirwa muna 1791 sorutivi rweBill of Rights, inorambidza zvakajeka hurumende yehurumende kunyima munhu upi noupi “upenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu, pasina muitiro wakafanira womutemo.” Kwamakumi amakore, ichi ganhuriro yakashanda bedzi kuhurumende yehurumende. Kwakanga kusati kuri kutozosvikira pakurongwa kweGaramende ye145th mu 1868, kutevera Hondo yeChivili, kuti ganhuriro imwe cheteyo yakaiswa pahurumende. Chikamu 1 cheKinneth Demendement chinogovera: “Chikamu chimwe cheHurumende ipi neipi ichanyima munhu upi noupi woupenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti pfuma, pasina muitiro wakafanira womutemo.” Uku kuwedzera, kunozivikanwa sedzidziso inoumbwa, kwakabvumira Dare Gurusa kushandisa zvakawanda zveHurumende, kuhurumende inodzorwa kwehurumende yeAmerica, uye kusunungurwa kwehurumende yehurumende yeAmerica.

Rwendo rwenhau rwemuitiro wakafanira runoratidzira kurwisa kunopfuurira kudzikamisa chiremera chehurumende nekodzero dzomunhu oga. Matare apakuvamba eAmerica akadudzira muitiro wakafanira zvikurukuru mumashoko etsika . "Kuzivisa chiziviso chakarurama nokunzwa kune revo. Nokufamba kwenguva, zvisinei, chitsama chamashoko chakaraviwa kubatanidza dziviriro dzechidukusa, achidzivirira maruramiro akati okunokosha pakudzongonyedzwa nehurumende pasinei zvapo nemiitiro inoshandiswa. Uyu mugariro wapakati pezvikamu zviviri (w=procedtural neactation) unopa kuti purogiramu yeClassiace yeChibvumirano cheCronze chine simba zvikurusa uye chinokwikwidzana mumutemo webumbiro remitemo.

Nokuda kwokunzverwa kukurusa kwenheyo dzamagwaro nedzenhau, nzvera Cornell Legal Information Institute’s transfusion of the Findment.

Gadziriro Inodikanwa Nhaka. Gadziriro Yakaoma Kuisa

Kunzwisisa Gwaro rinonzi System Claus kunoda kusiyanisa mapazu aro makuru maviri: mashandiro aro okutema uye maitiro akakodzera. Ose anokosha, asi anoshanda nenzira dzakasiyana - siyana.

Kurongwa Kunofanira Kuitwa

Gadziriro inobvunza sei hurumende inofanira kuita apo inonyima mumwe munhu upenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti chinhu. Inoraira miitiro yakakwanisika: chiziviso chakakwana, mukana wokunzwiwa pamberi pedare risina rusaruro, kodzero yokupa uchapupu neautomine, uye kodzero yokuratidza zviri pamutemo. Zvinodiwa zvacho zvakasiyana zvichitsamira pamashoko akapoteredza nechombo chetsotsi (*a utsotsi zvakazara zvinoda basa kupfuura, kutaura, kunzwa kwechikoro. Dare Rapamusoro raita kuti pave nokuedzwa muzviitiko zvakadai se Maws.[FLT]]][FLT]] [FLT]]], kuyera mutengo dandaro.

Mienzaniso mikuru yomuitiro unodikanwa muchiito inobatanidza:

  • Miedzo yokupedzisira: Kodzero yokupa zano, yokunangana nezvapupu, yokuramba wakanyarara, uye yokutongwa kwokukurumidza nokukurumidza.
  • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
  • [ Mitemo: Basa rokugadzira, banza rokupa dziviriro, uye maruramiro okukumbira.

Gadziriro Inokosha Inofanira Kuitwa

Muitiro wakafanira wakakomba, mukupesana, unobvunza icho hurumende ingatongoita. Inodzivirira maruramiro akati okusasarura padzongonyedzo dzehurumende, kunyange kana miitiro yakasanosanoteverwa. Iyi dzidziso ine nhau inomutsa nharo asi inodzikamisa zvisarudzo zvakatanhamara pamusoro poungwaru, hunhu, uye ukama hwemhuri.

Zviitiko zvemuitiro zvinofanira kuitwa pasi zvinobatanidza:

  • Griswold v. Connecticut[[FL:1] (1965) - - yakamisa mutemo unorambidza kudzivisa kunamba pamuviri, uchiziva maruramiro ezvakavanzika zveroorano.
  • Roe v. [773] - - yaidavira kuti kodzero yokuva voga inobatanidza chisarudzo chomukadzi chokugumisa pamuviri (mutongo mu ]] Dobs v. Jackson Women’s Health [20222]), iyo yakadzorera nhau yacho kumitengo).
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) – akawana kuti maruramiro makuru okuroora anotambanukira kuvakwanyina vane mitezo mimwe cheteyo yevatano.
  • LAWREnce v. Texas (2003) – mitemo yesodoma yakashaikwa, ichidzivirira mufambiro wapedyo pakati pavakuru vanobvumirana.

Ukuru hwemuitiro wakafanira wekuisa panzvimbo unoramba uchikurukurwa zvikuru. Vamwe vatongi vanotsigira nokuda kwokurava kwakaganhurirwa, vakaganhurirwa kumaruramiro “akadzikwa zvikuru munhau negamuchidzanwa rorudzi urwu,” apo vamwe vanotsigira chiono chakafara chorusununguko. Nokuda kwokurangarirwa kukuru kwenhau huru, shanyira matura enhau dzenhau [FLT:]Oyez .

Kudzivirirwa Kwakafanira Mugadziriro Yeruramisiro Yeutsotsi

Mazano aya anodzivirira kuti simba guru rehurumende riongororwe nemitemo yakagadzirirwa kudzivisa kudavira kusina kururama uye kuchengetedza kururamisira.

Kodzero Yokuramba Wakanyarara uye Uchipa Zano

Mu Mira v. Arizona (66), Dare rapamusoro rakataura kuti Dare reFindromendi reFindrefut razova ropafadzo yetsika yokuzvisunga rinoda kuti mapurisa azivise kufungira kodzero dzavo vasati vabvunzurudzwa. Ikoku kunobatanidza kodzero yokuramba vakanyarara uye kodzero kumumiri wegweta. Zvino "Maritalia" yazova rutivi rwenguva dzose rwokusungwa, asi kukosha kwavo hakugoni kupfuudzwa kupfuura: zvinovimbisa kuti kureurura kupi nokupirwa kwapachokwadi uye kuti kunonyumwira kuziva kuti havadikanirwi murrimi. [FLT:] Fail inogovera idzi nyevero dzakakurumbira mumiuyo ipi neipi inowanwa.[FF]

Kodzero Yokutongwa Kwakarurama

Dare reSikisi Rekupfuudzira, rakanyoreswa kupesana nenyika kupfurikidza neStuary Procession Claus, rinovimbisa kutonga kwemhesano uye kwevoruzhinji kunoitwa nedare rinobetsera vatongi vasingasaruri. Muitiro wakafanira unodazve kuti mupomerwi aziviswe nezvepomero, ave anokwanisa kunangana nezvapupu, uye kuva nebetsero yezano. Mhaka yechiratidzo Gideon v. Wainwright[ [1963]) yakasimbisa kuti masangano anofanira kugovera gweta kuvapo kuvanopomerwa mhaka dzemhosva, chisarudzo chakatambanurwa gare gare gare kunhau ipi neipi apo kunobvira kusungwa.

Kufunga Kwokusaita Zvakarurama Noufakazi Zvisingapfuuri Kupanikira Kune Mufungo

Muitiro wakafanira unoraira kuti hurumende itakure mutoro wokubvumikisa rutivi rwuri rwose rwoutsotsi pasina panikiro ine mufungo. Uyu mupimo, unosimbiswa mu Muwinshir [1970], unokosha kudzivirira vasina mhaka. Chibvumikiso chokusava nemhaka chinoreva kuti mupomerwi haagoni kubatwa seane mhaka kutozosvikira chisarudzo chasvikwa, uye vatongi vanofanira kurairirwa nenzira inowirirana.

Kukwirira Nokubatsira Kunoitika Pashure Pendege

Nepo pasina maruramiro ebumbiro remitemo okukwidza kutenderwa kwoutsotsi, nyika dzose nehurumende yehurumende zvinogovera nzira dzehwirudzuro. Nheyo dzegadziriro dzinodzorawo zvinoitika pashure pekukumbira, zvakadai sehabeas corpus, zvinobvumira vasungwa kudenha kusungwa kusiri kwapamutemo. Kodzero yokubetsera kunobudirira kwezano inotambanudzwa nomuitiro wokukumbira, sezvinozivikanwa mu SSrickland v. Washington

Nokuda kwekurukurirano ine udzame yomuitiro wakafanira mumuitiro woutsotsi, ona [[FLT: 0] Cornell Legal Information Institute pamuitiro wakafanira[[FLT: 1].

Kufambira Mberi Kwakafanira Mundima Dzevagari Vemo Nedzoudzori

Kudzivirira kwakakodzera hakuna kungogumira pamhosva dzemhosva chete.

Fariro Nemisoro Zvezvinhu

Murangariro we “mumukana” pasi peChiitiko chaClaus wakakura kupfuura zvisaririra zvenzvimbo kana kuti zvinhu zvomunhu oga kubatanidza betsero dzehurumende. Mu Goldberg v.Kelly (1970), Dare rakaramba kuti vagamuchiri vegamuchinguro vane kodzero yokunzwa kwepamberi penzvimbo yechaunga chevhu vasati vagona kuchekwa. Nenzira yakafanana, mushandi wehurumende ane kariro yapamutemo yebasa rinopfuuridzirwa (akadai sapurofesa anotsigirwa) haagoni kudzingwa pasina chiziviso nokunzwa. [FLT:] Idzi idzi nhau dzinosimbisa kuti kugadziriswa kwemitero yepfuma inoita zvinhu zvinoparira gadziriro yakafanira.[FLT]

Kufarira Dzidzo Nemukurumbira

Vadzidzi vanotarisana nokudzingwa vane fariro yorusununguko mumukurumbira wavo nedzidzo. Chisarudzo chechiratidzo Gos v. Lopez (1815) chaidavira kuti vadzidzi vechikoro chavose vanofanira kupiwa chiziviso chinenge chinotaurwa chepomero dzavanopomerwa uye mukana wokutsanangura rutivi rwavo vasati vaturikwa kwamazuva gumi. Nokuda kwokudzinga kwakareba kana kuti kudzingwa, miitiro yakawanda yapamutemo inodikanwa.

Nenzira yakafanana, zviito zvehurumende zvinozvidza munhu wacho − zvakadai sokupisa pachena mumwe munhu anotengesa mirimo kana kuti ngozi yokuchengetedzwa — zvinobatanidza fariro yorusununguko, zvichinyandura kodzero kuzita rokuti ­ kujekesera kunzwa.

Kodzero Dzemhuri Nenzira Yomubereki

Dare reChiteshi chaClaus rinodzivirirawo rusununguko rukuru munhau dzemhuri. Vabereki vane kodzero inobvumwa nebumbiro remitemo kutarisiro, kodzero, uye kudzora kwavana vavo, sezvinoitwa mu Pierce v. Society of Hanzvadzi [ [1925] [[FLT]) [FLTROCE] v. Granville [2000]. Hurumende isati yagona kugumisa kodzero dzoubereki, inofanira kugovera ufakazi hwakajeka uye hunopwisa hwekudzivirira nokupfuudza vabereki, kubatanidza maruramiro okupa zano.

Kutama Nokutakurwa

Kunyange vanhu vasiri vagari muUnited States vane maruramiro emuitiro wakafanira mukubviswa kwezvinoitika. Chitsama chamashoko cheFindth Amendment chinoti “munhu upi noupi” chinobatanidza vanhu vose vari mukati mehurumende yeU.S. Nepo kutama kuri kwavagari vemo panzvimbo poutsotsi, ivo vanofanira kuwirirana neruramisiro yakakomba /_nondice, kunzwiwa pamberi pomutsigiri asina rusaruro, uye mukana wokupa ufakazi. Kodzero idzi, zvisinei, dzakaganhurirwa nemirairo neko yedare kusimba rePresspolatery pas atvoms.

Zvinetso Zvazvino Uno Zvokuita Zvakakodzera

Nepo nheyo dzapakati dzemuitiro wakafanira dzichiramba dziri dzenguva dzose, ruzivo rutsva uye chinjo dzenzanga dziripo zvino zvinetso.

Kushandisa Madhigirii uye Kuva Woga

Unyanzvi hwazvino uno hwokunzvera . kubatanidza nzvimbo inonyorwa cell68site, kuzivikanwa kwechiso, uye kuunganidzwa kukuru kwemashoko − edza miganhu yeChinesei sokunomanikidzirwa kupfurikidza neGutement Claus. Chisarudzo cheDare Gurusa re Carplate v. United States [2018]) inobvuma kuti kuvhura sero renhau renzvimbo inonzi [1] kunoumba maspokanyo anodikanwa. Asi mibvunzo mizhinji ichiripo: Muitiroi unofanirwa apo ungwandiro hunoshandiswa kuita mabhiri, kuranga, kana kuti kuranga? dare rimwe nerimwe rinogona sei kudenha chisarudzo icho chingatsamira pamashoko asina kururama?

Kuchengeteka Kwenyika Yose Nemaitiro Akakodzera

Mushure me9/11, hurumende yakasimbisa masimba makuru kuvharira magandanga navavengi vanofungidzirwa kuva varwi pasina miitiro yamagamuchidzanwa. Zvisarudzo zvakafanana HAmdi v. Rumsfeld (2004) yakasimbisa kuti kunyange vagari vemo veU.S. vakasarudzwa savarwi vane kodzero yokupinda mumuitiro wakakodzera , ziviso yehwaro hwechokwadi nokuda kwokusungwa kwavo uye mukana wakanaka wokuzvibatanidza pamberi pechisarudzo chisina kutora rutivi. Bva masangano chaiwo omuitiro wechengeteko yorudzi anoramba achikwikwidzana, zvikurukuru nokuda kwokusava namaGenetizen.

Uchenjeri Hunogadzirwa Nechisarudzo Choutarisiri

Masangano ehurumende anowedzera kushandisa gadziriro dzinoshanda dzoga kuti aone kuti zvinobatsira zvakadii, kuongorora ngozi, kana kuti kunyange kubudisa faindi. Kana gadziriro idzi dzisina kujeka kana kuti dzichida kukanganisa, anogona kunyima vanhu zvinhu kana kuti rusununguko pasina muitiro une revo. Kumuka kwe “algothrithmic system” kunorayira kuti pave nedziviriro itsva: kodzero yokutsanangura, kuhwirudzurwa kwezvisarudzo zvemotokari, uye nzira dzokudenha nadzo purogiramu dzekombiyuta. Dare nemitemo yemitemo zvemitemo zvinongorimba zviri kungotanga kurwisana nenhau idzi.

Kupa Kodzero Negadziriro Yakafanira

Kuvhota ikodzero huru, asi miitiro yesarudzo inowanzobatanidza itiro hanya dzakafanira. Mitemo yokuvhota yakananga, mirau inovhota, uye mirau inochinja-chinja yeposi inonzi gorgin inogona kuremedza maruramiro okuvhota pasina chiziviso chakakwana kana kuti mukana wokurapa zvikanganiso. Dare Rapamusoro mu Bhush v. Gore [2000]) yakakumbira nenzira yakakurumbira dziviriro yakaenzana nemuitiro wakafanira kumisa kurondedzera Florida, asi kushandiswa kukuru kwomuitiro unodikanwa kusara kunoramba kuri nzvimbo inowirirana nomutemo.

Mupeto: Kukosha Kusingaperi Kwemaitirwo Anofanira Kuitwa

Gwaro rinonzi System Claus reChibvumirano chapamutemo; ivimbiso mhenyu yokuti simba rehurumende richashandiswa zvakanaka, sezvinodeya kutaurwa, uye nokuremekedza chiremera chomunhu oga. Kuvambira paMagna Carta kurondedzero yebumbiro remitemo razvino uno, nheyo yokuti hakuna munhu achanyimwa upenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu pasina miitiro yapamutemo uye chisakiso chakarurama chakaumba tsika yemitemo yeAmerica.

Kunzwisisa muitiro wakafanira kunopa vanhu simba rokusimbisa kodzero dzavo pakushanda pamwe nokuchengetwa kwomutemo, zvikoro, vashandirwi, kana kuti masangano ehurumende. Kunotiyeuchidzawo kuti mutemo unoda kungwarira kwenguva dzose (zvikurukuru sezvo ruzivo rwokugadzira zvinhu nedzvinyiriro dzeko dzinoparira tyisidziro itsva dzokuita ruramisiro. Claus anoramba ari nhoo huru mukurwisa chiito chehurumende younyengeri, uye mutoro wevagari vemo vose kuuziva nokuudzivirira.

Nokuda kwokuraviwazve pamusoro perevo inopfuurira yomuitiro wakafanira, bvunza Oyez pfupiso ye rown v. Board yeDzidzo uye yakazara murangariro kuona kuti zvikamu zvebasa zvakaumba sei nzanga yedeseclinum.