Pfungwa yokuzvidzora kwehurumende ine mavambo makuru munhau yemitemo, inobva mupfungwa yokuti nyika inotonga haigoni kupiwa mhosva mumatare ayo pachayo pasina kubvumira kwayo. Iyi nheyo yakaumba nzira iyo marudzi anoshandira pamwe nayo zviri pamutemo uye nekurukurirano kwamazana amakore. Kuvambira padzidziso dzeMiddle Agedry dzesimba rehurumende rakakwana kusvikira kugadziriro dzazvino uno dzinodzikamisa chiremera chomunhu oga nokuzvidavirira, kudzivirira maruramiro outongi kunoramba kuri imwe yenzvimbo dzevoruzhinji nedzinoitiranwa pasi. Nyaya ino inotara mavambo enhau edziviriro youchangamire, mhindumupinduko yawo kupfurikidza nomutemo wavose uye makokorodzano amarudzi akawanda, uye kupesana neyazvinovapo panguva inoganhurira mwero.

Mavambo Musimba RaChangamire

Mavambo esimba rokudzivisa zvirwere zvapamutemo anodzokera shure kupfungwa yomuMiddle Ages yokuti mamist namadzishe akanga ari pamusoro pomutemo. MuEngland, dzidziso yacho yakarongwa kupfurikidza nemashoko rex aisava mativi epombi [, kureva kuti "mambo anogona kuita chinhu chakaipa. Iyi pfungwa yaireva kuti mambo akanga asingatapurwi nemhosva, kwete nemhaka yokuti mambo akanga asingakanganisi, asi nemhaka yokuti mutemo waisagona kumanikidza uchangamire kupindura mumatare ake amene. Mudzivisi akanzwisiswa sewakabva kuchiremera cheHuru uye chimiro chesimba redare.

Chirungu Doctrine: [[Njeredzi] Rex Non Potest Peccare

Mutemo wavose weEngland wakakudziridza dziviriro yapamutemo kupfurikidza nomuvhenganiswa wetsika dzechiRungu nechiremera choumambo. Munhambo yeMiddle Ages, mambo akanga ari tsime reruramisiro; kwakarangarirwa kuva kusina mufungo kuti mambo aigona kudanwa pamberi pedare raaitungamirira. Nhau dzapakuvamba dzakadai se Probibititions del Roy [16]] del Roy] [16] [60]) uye [FLT] Cases of Proclames [FLT] [FT:] [1611])) yakasimbisa nheyo yokuti mambo aisagona kuiswa mumatare ake amene pasina chibvumirano. Chibvumirano chapauro chapamutemo hachina kubvisa uku kuradzikwa panzvimbo yapamhiko kupfurikidza namaitiro [FT]

Kunze kweEngland, gadziriro dzemitemo dzenyika dzeEurope dzakagamuchirawo kudzivirira dziviriro kwehurumende pasi pomutemo weRoma zvirevo zvakadai se jingsipus solutus est (chichinda haasungirwi nemitemo). MuFrance, dzidziso ye munité de l’État yakabva kuumambo hwakakwana hwaLouis XIV ichipinda mu 19thcentury mutemo wehurumende uyo wakarangarira kuva musengwano yakaparadzana nomutemo wavanhu. Zvisinei, kufanana naJohn Locle naMontequieuces yakavamba kubvunza kuvhiyaniswa kwakakwana, mbeu dzenguva yapashure.

Kugamuchirwa kweAmerica Kwapakuvamba uye Kutevedzerwa Kwegumi Negumi Negumi

Makoroni eAmerica akawana nhaka mutemo weEngland, kubatanidza nheyo yokuti chigaro haagoni kukwidzwa pasina kubvumirana. Pashure pouzvimirira, Dare reConfederation rakaisa nyika nedziviriro yakafara, asi kuumbwa kweBumbiro reMitemo kwakamutsa mibvunzo yapakarepo. Mu Shijolm v. Georgia [173] [, U.S. Dare guru raidavira kuti Chikamu III cheBumbiro reMitemo chinobvumira mugari wehurumende kuti adzore mugari wehurumende yeGejiyonia pasina kubvumirana kwehurumende. Chisarumbidzo ichi chakamutsa kurira pakati pevatsigiri vatengi voumambo. Chinoguma chakanga chiripo chokukurumidza [[FLT] [FFFF:3] [55], (95]), icho chakadzosera kudzorwa nesimba rehurumende yehurumende yehurumende yeUnited States kana kuti ive pachibvumirano chomumwe.

Dare rePrefect rechi11 harina kugadza bhaundi rakakwana; panzvimbo pezvo, rakabatanidza mutemo wemitemo kuti masangano ehurumende anogona kubvisa mativi ose. Dare Rapamusorosoro gare gare rakawedzera ukuru hwaro mumhaka dzakadai se ] Hans v. Louisiana [1890], rakavamba kuti kugadziriswa kwacho kunorambidzawo jastimu kurwisana nehurumende yavagari vemo mudare rehurumende, kunyange zvazvo rugwaro rwacho rusingatauri zvakajeka kudaro. Irourofiti yakaparira dzidziso yapamutemo yapamutemo inopfuudzira muU.S.

Kukura Mumutemo Wavose

Mukati mezana ramakore rechi 19 nerapakuvamba rechi 20, nheyo yokusatapurwa kwakakwana kwesimba yakatonga muzvose zviri zviviri United Kingdom neUnited States. Matare akaramba nguva dzose kuvaraidza sutu dzinorwisana navatongi vokumwe kana kuti nyika dzomumba pasina kubvumirana kwakajeka.

Dzidziso Yokusabatana Kuzere

Mu Hurumende yeStokes Exchange v. M'Faddon (11812), Mutongi mukuru John Marshall akarondedzera hwaro hwekudzivisa kuzvitonga kwokumwe muU.S.: kuvapo kwowechipiri muU.S. inhau yetendero, isina kururama. Marshall akanyora kuti simba renyika mukati menyika yayo imene ndeyakazara uye yakakwana, asi ingabvuma kutora chiremera icho pamusoro pamadzishe okumwe. Mhaka iyi yakatanga [[FLT:] rondedzero yezviwiro zvapamutemo [[FLT] [FL:] [FLD]] [FOFON] 3] muUnited States, iyo yakatekeshesa kusvikira pakati pezana rechi20. UKK yakatevera nzira yakafanana. [5] [5]

Kufunga kwedzidziso yakakwana kwakanga kwakapfava: kuchengeta hurumende yokumwe ine mhaka mumatare orumwe rudzi kwaizoputsa wirirano ne kuzvimirira zvavatongi. Asi sezvo mabhizimisi ehurumende anozvitutumadza akawedzera(mitsetse, makambani eoiri, makambani endege anobata naaya masangano akazviwana amene asina mushonga apo makakatanwa akamuka. Kusaruramisira kwokubvumira hurumende kushambadza semutengesi uye ipapo kumuvanziri weuchangamire kwakaparira kuraira chinjo.

Kuchinja Kwepfungwa Inorambidza

Chinjo yakavamba mukuvamba kwezana ramakore rechi20 nezvisarudzo muItaly neBelgium, izvo zvakasiyanisa pakati pa jureii (matanho okutonga) uye jujusition [[[FLT]]] (matanho okutengeserana] [mabasa okudzora]. Musi we [FLT] 4] rondedzero yewirirano yetengidzo yehurumende [, inotaura kuti anogamuchira bedzi dziviriro yemabasa outongi, kwete nokuda kwemibato yezvokutengeserana. United States yakagamuchira nenzira yapamutemo rondedzero mu 1952 kupfurikidza [FOLD:] ... [FFM] [FM]7], yakabudiswa neChibvumirano cheRepano yeState. Hurumende yeChibvumirano cheT. Hurumende yeChibvumirano cheT.[3]

[[[FT:0] Sungidzo ye[[FT:1]: U.S. Dhipatimendi reRuramisiro – Changamire Wedzimwe Nyika

Tsamba yeTate yakanga isina simba romutemo, asi yakatungamirira matare eU.S. kutozosvikira Congress yabatanidza rondedzero inoganhurira mu Changamire Immunies Act ya 1976 (FSIA). FSIA yakatanga gadziriro huru yokuziva apo nyika dzokumwe navashandi vadzo zvinodzivirira dziviriro pasuo mumatare eU.S.S., uye inoramba iri dare guru rechiremera chesimba resimba rehurumende yokumwe muUnited States.

Mhindumupindu Mumutemo Wamarudzi Ose

Nepo gadziriro dzapamutemo dzomumba dzakatanga kudzivirira ganhuriro, mutemo wamarudzi ose wakaparapatika kujekesa mupimo wakabatana. International Law Commission (ILC) yakavamba kushanda pamusoro muma 1970, kuchiguma muUnited Nations Convention on Jurisdiction Immunity of States and Theopromation 2004).

UN Kokorodzano pamusoro peMisangano Yehondo (2004)

Dare reUN rakaitwa neGeneral Assembly musi wa2 December 2004 uye rakavhurwa kuti risainwe musi wa17 January 2005. Rakatanga kushanda musi wa10 September 2024, pashure pokunge raiswa chishandiso che30 chokuvaka. Convention inobatanidza kusvika kwakaganhurirwa, ichipa kuti nyika irege kudzivirira kutevedzerwa kwemabhizimisi, zvibvumirano zvebasa, kukuvara kwomunhu kana kuti kukuvadzwa kwezvinhu, zvinhu zvemangwariro, kana kuti zvibvumirano zvokubatanidza. Inogadzawo mitemo yepfungwa ye "bhizimisi" uye kubatwa kwezvinhu zvehurumende. Kuvamba kwe2025, Kokorodzano ine 31 parati dzeUnited States, kubatanidza mari huru dzakadai seJapan, Italy, uye France. United States neUnited States yakasaina bvumirano asi haina kubvumirana neUnited Kingdom Convention.

[[[FORT:0] Isita yemasumo: UN Treaty – Jurisdictionian Immunitionity of States[

Maappectes Okuenzanisa: Mutemo Wavagari Vemo unopesana noMutemo Wavose

Nyika dzehurumende dzeEurope, zvikurukuru Germany neItaly, dzakanga dzagamuchira kudzivirira dziviriro kunoganhurira kwenguva refu kupfurikidza nezvisarudzo zvokutonga. Federal Constitution Court, mu [FLT: 0]. Corte di Case Application yeIran [1963] [1963], yaidavira kuti kudzivirira kwoutongi kwedzimwe nyika hakutambanudziri kuita [[[FLT:]] jure gestion [[FLT]]stions [[FLT]]]. Corte di Casizone akashandisawo rondedzero. MuUnited Kingdom, [FLT:] Chibvumirano cheIM. [FLT] Chibvumirano cheIT] Chinongedzero chaGwaro chamagenyuko [[FLT] [5] chinogovera kuti mugariro ubrome kubva kuudzo yeUK, kubatanidza zvibvumirano zvemiteshina, kubatanidza zvibvumirano zvebasa, UK, uye kubatanidza chibvumirano cheEurope Yokushato yeEurope chitsa .

European Convention on State (1972) yakanga iri nhamburiko yapakuvamba kutsinhiranisa mitemo yehurumende inodzivirira muEurope. Yakatanga kushanda muna 1976 uye zvino ine mapati masere enyika. Convention inogamuchira mutoo unoganhurira uye inobatanidza gadziriro dzine udzame pamiraudzo yebasa nokuchengetwa kwemitongo. Zvisinei, yakatsiviwa zvikuru neUN Convention neyazvino uno zvikuru Council of Europe Odded Protocomment to European Convention on State Immunity[[FLT1].

Zviitiko Zvazvino Uno Nezvisipo

Nyika dzakawanda dzinoziva kusiyana kwezvinoitwa nenhengo dzehurumende kana kuti nyika dzinenge dzapinda mudare.

Mubato Wezvekutengeserana Unosiiwa

Chinosinhanha zvikuru ndechemibato yezvokutengeserana. Muzvose zviri zviviri FSIA neUN Convention, nyika haidziviriki painotenga kutengeserana. FSIA inorondedzera mubato wezvokutengeserana sechiito chenguva dzose chomufambiro wezvokutengeserana kana kuti kutengeserana kana kuti chiito chakati chezvokutengeserana. Mubvunzo mukuru ndewokuti chiito chacho ndechimwe here icho boka ravanhu voga ringagona kuva rakaita. Somuenzaniso, kutengwa kwendege inotakurwa nendege ikodzero yendege yokutengeserana, nepo kutorwa kwezvomboro yezvemari yehondo yedzimwe nyika panguva yehondo kuri kutengesa. Dare rinorangarira mugariro wechiito chacho, kwete chinangwa charo, kudzivirira. Iyi yakaita kuti nzvimbo inotendwa ive yakakwirira.

Kupunzwa kwamaruramiro avanhu ne [[MVURA] JON [[FLT: 1]

Imwe yemhesano hurusa inobatanidza kuputswa kwemipimo yemitemo yamarudzi ose. jus cogens), zvakadai sokutambudza, kuuraya rudzi, uye uranda. Nhau ndeyokuti hurumende inogona kutaura kuti haigoni kudzivirira maruramiro avanhu anokosha, kunyange kana mabasa iwayo akanga ari echisonero muchisiko. Al-Adtani v. United Kingdom[FFLT:3] (2001), Dare reEurope rekodzero dzavanhu rakati kudzivirira kodzero dzavanhu mudanho yokutambudzira hakuna kuputsa dare rakarurama pasi peChikamu 6 cheConvention on Human Rights, nemhaka yokubatira donzo (kudzorome) yapamutemo) uye haina kuzivikanwa mudare ramarudzi ose.[Fju4]

Zvisinei, mamwe matare enyika akava nomurangariro wakasiana. Mu Federal Republic of Germany (2004), Dare reItarina raKasasa rakataura kuti Germany haingagoni kutaura kuti haigoni kudzivirira utsotsi hwehondo uye kushanda kwokumanikidzirwa mukati meHondo Yenyika II, nemhaka yokuti mabasa acho akaputsa [[FLT:] jus cogns[[FLT] . Ikoku kwakatungamirira ku [[FLT:] Jeriganistitution Imnonits It yeHurumende yeNyika yose [FG] pamberi pedare reNyika yose reChirati (IC). Muna 2012, ICJJ yakatonga kuti Italy ipedze mutemo wavagari vemo vomunyika yose usati wapiwa mhosva nemhaka yehondo muGermany, yakaitwa munyika yose mukusanwa nomutemo wamarudzi akawanda mukusarudzi rwadzoro.[5]

[[[FORT:0] Isita yemasumo: [[FT:2]ICJ – Juristional Immunitions of the State (Germany v. Italy)

Waiver Nebvumirano

Hurumende ingaparadza kudzivirira kwayo kurwisa kana kuti nenzira yakananga. Edzisirai kupfurikidza nechibvumirano, chibvumirano, kana kuti chiziviso chapanyika. Kushandisa chibvumirano kunogona kumuka apo hurumende inozviisa pasi pesimba redare kupfurikidza nokuisa chibvumirano kana kuti kubvumirana kurwisa. Pasi pe FSIA, chirango chehurumende kupfurikidza nokubvumirana kubatanidzwa muarbite. Waiver inotanhanharo chaiyo; anodzivisa kudzivirirwa padare kupfurikidza nokusangoerekana aita chibvumirano. Kudzivisa kutongwa kwedare hakungoerekani kwapari kuiswa musero pasuti uye kudzivirirwa pakuurawa. Kunyange nyika isingacharatiswa kuti iparadzwe, chinhu chayo chingangova chisingatapunzi chitengi.

Ugandanga Hunobviswa

MuUnited States, pashure pekudenha kwe 9/11, Congress yakagadziridza FSIA kupfurikidza ne Antitórsts neIniversal Death Penalty Act ya1996 uye gare gare Justice Again Against of Terrorism Act (JASTA) ya2016. Kutsiva uku kunobvumira zvisakafanira kurwisana nehurumende dzokumwe dzinonzi nyika dzinoshandiswa sedziridziridziro dzamabasa ougandanga, kutambudza, kana kuti kuuraya kwokuwedzera kunoitika kunze kweU. U. Uganda hwakatungamirira kurutongeso kunyika dzakadai seIran neS, asi kuunganidza izvozvo kunoramba kuri kwakaoma nemhaka yeFIA kuparadzwa kunze kwezviito zvakati zvinoshandiswa mumibato yezvokutengeserana.

Makakatanwa Nezvinetso Zvinotevera

Kudzivirirwa kwehurumende hakusi dzidziso isingazivikanwi; kunopfuurira kuchinja mukupindura zvimiro zvitsva zvebasa rehurumende, kudzora kwenyika yose, uye tsika dzavanhu.

Chikwereti chaChangamire Chinopinzwa

Mubato webhizimisi wave uri mukuru kuchikwereti chezvigaro. Apo nyika isati yagona kudzora zvisungo, vakwaniri vanowanzova vatengi muU.S. kana kuti UK pasi perondedzero yokuti zvisungo mubato webhizimisi. Mu NML, Ltd. v. Republic yeArgentina (2014, Dare guru reU.S.S. Dare rakati kudzivirira Argentina muzvibvumirano zvaro kwakanga kwakafara kubvumidza kuwanwa kwezvinhu zvaro munyika yose. Mhaka yacho inoendeswa kumira kunorwisana pamusoro peripo, asi yakasimbisawo kuti chikwereti chakasimba chiri mukati menongedzero yebhizimisi. FSIA, zvisinei, zvinoda mutezo wa" mubatanidzwa mubatanidzwa weUnited States, apo nyika yokunze kwedzimwe nyika inopesana.

Kupindwa Muropa Nokuda kweHurumende ← [1] Kupinda Mumibato

Kuwanda kwemabhizimisi ehurumende inofutunurwa kumutsa mibvunzo pamusoro pokuti ane maruramiro okudzivisa zvirwere zvakafanana nehurumende imene. FSIA inobata SOES se "mabhizimisi kana kuti zvishandiso" zvehurumende yokumwe, uye zvinodzivirira kunze kwokunge kwakasiana. Asi UN Convention inosiyanisa pakati pehurumende nesangano rakaparadzana izvo "zvisingakwaniswi nemamiriro ezvinhu anokwanisa kukwikwidza kana kuti kukwidzwa. Chimiro chendangariro ndechokubata SOEs savanhu vakaparadzana nemitemo, kureva kuti vanogamuchira dziviriro yezviito bedzi zvinoitwa mukushandisa chiremera chapamutemo. Iyi nharaunda inotsoropodza nokuda kwamasangano amarudzi akawanda ayo anobatira mauto, mafuta, kana kuti makambani okuchera.

Kuzvidavirira Kwoutsotsi Hwenyika Yose

Rome Sigmentte yeInternational Criminal Court (ICC) inogovera kuti nzvimbo yapamutemo somusoro wehurumende kana kuti hurumende haisati ichitongosunungura munhu pamutoro woutsotsi. Ikoku zvakananga kunodenha murangariro wegamuchidzanwa wokusatapurwa kwavanhu vanopomerwa mhaka yokuparadza rudzi, mhosva dzinorwisana navanhu, kana kuti utsotsi hwehondo. Kusungwa kwaPrezidenti weSudanal Omar al Malbaxir uye waPrezidhendi weRussia Vladimir Purezidenti Prain Pratin kuenzanisira kuti kudzivirira utachiona [[FL:0] munhu anodzivirira [paroma] (kudzivirira kugadzikwa kwemiga yogaro yehurumende) hakuvadziviriki kupo pamhosva dzamarudzi ose. matare eNational Agesalalalalal anogara pakati pekuromending) I.

[[[Nto:0] Isita yemasumo: [[[FORN]]Cornell Information Institute – Changamire Immuny

mhedziso

Dzidziso yezvokuzvidzora yakashanduka kubva mumifungo yeMiddle Ages yekodzero dzaMwari nekusakanganisa kwoumambo kunheyo yapamutemo yakaoma inofanira kudzikamisa kuremekedza uchangamire hwehurumende nezvinodikanwa neruramisiro, kuzvidavirira, uye kutengeserana kwenyika yose. Rondedzero yakakwana yezana ramakore rechi 19 yakapa nzvimbo kurondedzero inoganhurira mu 20, uye zana ramakore rechi21 rinopfuurira kuedza ganhuriro dzeganhuriro dzechirambidzo ichocho. UN Convention on Jurisciation Immunion of State nePromation, nepo isati yatenderwa munyika yose, inomirira kubatana kukurusa kwezvirevo zvinoganhurira. Kunyange zvakadaro mibvunzo mikuru yasara: Ko kunofanira kurambira ganhuriro yemitemo yemitemo iyoyo [FLT:] here? [FLT:]?

Sezvo nyika inowedzera kuva inobatana, dzidziso ichapfuurira kushanduka. Nyanzvi navazivi vanofanira kuramba vachipa ngwariro kutsinhirano yakasiana pakati pomutemo worudzi, zvibvumirano zvamarudzi ose, uye mutemo wetsika wamarudzi ose.

[[[NUMBO] [[[FT:1] [[FLT]] [[FT]] Encclopædia Britannica – Changamire Immuny