Sumo: Kusvika Kwoufundisi Kunopfuura Dare Rapamusorosoro reUnited States

Chiratidzo chapakuvamba chedare, chaichimbova rondedzero yedzidzo yakanyanyisa, chazova simba guru mukududzira kwemitemo yeAmerica.[1] Zvikurukuru mumatare ehurumende. Nepo ngwariro yavose inonangidzira ngwariro paU.S. Kushandiswa kwedare rapamusorosa kwokurangarira kwapakuvamba muzvisarudzo zvakadai se Diquality of Columbia v. Heller [2008], pesvedzero yetsika yapakuvamba inosvika kure zvikuru muruwa rwemitemo. Hurumende, zvirongwa zvokutungamirira, uye hurumende inotonga zvose zvinorwisana nenheyo dzechinjo yapakuvamba apo inokwidza, kuisa, uye kuongorora magadzirirwe emitemo. Nyaya iyi inonzvera kuti kushandurwa kwetsika kwapakuvamba kwetsika nemitemo yetsika yetsika inodzose, kupesana nokudzorwa kwemitemo yehurumende yehurumende.

Kurondedzera Kurekwa Kwomutemo: Vatongi Nevatsigiri

Kutonga kwapakuvamba hakusati kuri donzo rimwe. Kunobatanidza mitoo inoverengeka yakasiana, iyo yose inogoverana musengwa wokuisa revo yebumbiro-mitemo munzvimbo yenhau. Zvimiro zviviri zvinopesvedzera zvikurusa ndi donzo rapakuvamba repakuvamba [ uye [FLT] revo yavanhu yapakuvamba yerevo [.

Revo Yavanhu Vose Yopakuvamba Yakapindwa Mungozi

Kufunga kwokutanga kunobvunza icho maforamendi kana kuti maratifiers akarongwa nenzira yomuzvarirwo apo vakanyoresa kana kuti kugamuchira gadziriro yebumbiro remitemo. Uku kuita kunotsamira zvikuru pazvinyorwa zvenhau zvakadai sekurukurirano dzekokorodzano, Federalist Papers, uye nyorerano dzapachivande. Vatsoropodzi vanotaura kuti kunzwisisa vavariro imwe, yakabatana kazhinji kazhinji hakubviri, zvikurukuru nokuda kwemitumbi mizhinji.

Yakajeka vanhu vanoreva kuti mashoko apakuvamba , inotsigirwa nenhamba dzakafanana neMutongi Antonin Scalia nenyanzvi yepamutemo Randy Barnett, panzvimbo pezvo inobvunza kuti munhu ane mufungo upi panguva yokuita kuti rugwaro ruve ainzwisisa kuti zvinoreva. Uyu mutoo unosimbisa revowose yamashoko uye unodzivisa kuvimba nevavariro dzakavanzika. Nhasi, revo yapakuvamba yavose ndiwo chimiro chikuru chechitendero chepakuvamba muzvose zviri zviviri jurisprudence.

Dare rehurumende rinogamuchira nenzira inowedzera revo yavanhu yapakuvamba pakududzira mabumbiro emitemo aro amene. Somuenzaniso, Louisiana Supreme Court yakataura kuti bumbiro remitemo remitemo "rinofanira kutsanangurwa mukuwirirana nerevo yakajeka yamashoko aro seainzwisiswa panguva yokurerwa. Iyi nzira inodzika mitemo inokosha yokuti vatongi voruwa vanoyera sei gadziridzo idzo dzinoedza kukudza kana kuti kuganhurira maruramiro.

Basa Rebumbiro reMitemo reAmerica Munzanga

Mabumbiro emitemo anobatira semitemo mikuru nokuda kwavanopfuura vaAmerica vane mamirioni 330, kazhinji kazhinji vane dziviriro dzine udzame zvikuru dzekodzero kupfuura Bumbiro reMitemo rehurumende. Kusafanana neBumbiro reMitemo reU.S., iro rakagadziridzwa kane 27 bedzi, mabumbiro emitemo anogadziridzwa kazhinji kazhinji (pane nguva imwe neimwe) kupfurikidza nezvinonyorwa zvemitemo, zvirongwa zvevagari vemo, kana kuti kokorodzano dzebumbiro remitemo. Iyi dynam anoita kuti mutemo wemitemo wehurumende uve hwaro hwakaorera nokuda kwenharo dzepakuvamba.

Chimiro chekuvamba panzvimbo yehurumende chinodudzwa zvikurukuru nemhaka yokuti vatongi vehurumende kazhinji kazhinji vanofarikanya kuchinjika kukuru kupfuura vatongi vehurumende kutsanangura mabumbiro avo vamene emitemo. Dare Gurusa reU.S. rakataura rataurazve kuti masangano angagovera dziviriro huru zvikuru nokuda kwekodzero dzomunhu oga pasi pemirayiro yawo amene kupfuura Hurumende inoda (ona [[FLT]]Michigan v. Long[FL:1], 463 U.S. 1032, 1983). Somuuyo, mutongi wehurumende anoshandisa mitoo yapakuvamba yetsika yapakuvamba angasvika mhedziso yakasiana pamusoro pomugariro wenyika kupfuura mutongi womubatanidzwa unoshandisa mutoo wakafanana kugadziriro yomubatanidzwa. Izvi zvinogadzira nzvimbo yakapfuma yeratongerwe rwekurangarira kwapakuvamba.

Kuchinja Kunoita Kutanga Gadziriro Dzehurumende Dzokuchinja

Kutanga kunotapura chikamu chiri chose chechikamu chechinjo yebumbiro remitemo romunyika: kunyora, kutendera muvhoti, kuhwirudzura kwokutonga, uye kududzira kwakatevera.

Kudzivisa Nechirango Chokuvamba

Vatsigiri vemitemo navatsigiri vanotanga kuronga vanotarisira kuhwirudzurwa kwedare redare vanofanira kugadziridza nokururama. Mutauro unokokera matare kuti ashandise revo yavanhu yapakuvamba, ingatsauka panharidzano dzemiitiro yomugadziri wegadziriro. Somuenzaniso, kana mutengi akatsvaka kutanga kodzero itsva , anenge "akarurama kumhoteredzo yakachena" matare echitangiridzo achanzvera icho kutaura ikoko kwakareva kuvanhu vose panguva yokurerwa, kwete izvo zvinodavirwa nezvinoreva. Chirango ichi chinokurudzira kuva chakajeka, kunyora muwa wakarurama zvikuru.

Kuhwirudzura Kutonga Pasi Pezvibvumirano Zvekare

Apo matare ehurumende anohwirudzura kushanda kwegadziridzo, mavambo anopa gadziriro yokusarudza kana kugadziridza kunorwisana norugwaro rwebumbiro remitemo rwuripo. Mabumbiro emitemo akawanda ane "rencementment" zvitsama zvinoganhurira mativi apo kugadziridza kungagamuchirwa. Somuenzaniso, gadziridzo dzinosekesa "chimiro chehurumende" chinovimbiswa neU.S. Constitution ingaparadzwa. Vatongi vepakuvamba vachabvunza kana revo yezvisarudzo, sezvinonzwisiswa paratisitidzo, kuputsa gadziriro idzodzo dzakadzikamiswa.

Chitendero chinotapurawo nzira iyo matare anoyera nayo denho dzetsika. Mamwe mabumbiro emitemo anoda kuti chinjo dziganhurirwe kunhau imwe. Vatongi vemavambo vachatarira kurevo yenhau ye "munhu mumwe" panguva yakagamuchirwa bumbiro remitemo rehurumende, panzvimbo pokushandisa mipimo yehurumende yazvino uno. Ikoku kunogona kuguma nokuregeredzwa kukuru kana kuti kuduku kurumbidzwo rwemitemo, kuchitsamira panzwisiso yapakuvamba yehurumende.

Nzvero Dzapamhosva: Chitendero Chokutanga Chinoitwa Mhiri KweUnited States

Kuenzanisira tapuro inoshanda yechitendero chepakuvamba pagadziridzo dzenzvimbo yehurumende, tinonzvera mienzaniso mitatu inokosha inobva mumativi akasiyana - siyana.

California: Kuisa Mushonga 8 Nerevo Yapakuvamba Yeroorano

Muna 2008, vavhoti vakapfuudza project 8, nhano yakagadziridza bumbiro remitemo rehurumende kurondedzera roorano serinongova pakati pomurume nomukadzi. Apo kugadziriswa kwakadenhwa mu Perry v. Schwarzeger [pano] (pashure]] (panguva yapa ] Hurukorworwodowworworworworworworwo-dwoselw [v. Perry[[FLT]]] [[FLT]]]), , mativi ose akakumbira zvibvumikiso zvapakuvamba. Vatsigiridzi vaidza kuti revo renhau ye "Relition" panguva yapakuvamba yehurumende 1849] yakanga iri inowirirana chose chose chose. Vashongeri yereso revo revo renyika revo revo yavanhu remone yavanhu vose yakavakirwa panzvimbo yevatano. progredt proving profiletiveritiveritiveritioms.

Dare reCalifornia rakashandisa misi ichangobva kupfuura iyi zvikuru mavambo mumhaka dzinobatanidza ruramisiro youtsotsi. Mu Vanhu v. Buza [2017]), Dare Gurusa reCalifornia rakaramba kushandisa nzvero yakananga kuProgramu 9 (Mutemo weMitemo), asi kurangarira kwapakuvamba kwakaoneka mumirangariro inopanikira wirira tsinhirano yetendiso nenzwisiso yapakuvamba yegadziriro yakafanira.

Florida: Kodzero yeHurumende Yokuvhima Nehove

Muna 2014, vavhoti veFlorida vakawana Kugadziridzwa kwemashoko 1, kwakaita kuti pave nekodzero yebumbiro remitemo yokuvhima nehove. Pakazotangwa chikatapuriranwa kuti kugadziridzwa uku kwaidzosera nyika kudzoresa here simba rehurumende rokutarisira mhuka, Dare Gurusa reFlorida rakashandisa nheyo dzepakutanga. Dare rakaongorora kugadziridzwa kwerugwaro, kupetwa kwechikamu, uye kushambadzira kwakabva kunhimbe dzechirongwa chokusarudza kuti muvhoti ane mufungo aizonzwisisa kugadziriswa kwezviito kuti zvirevo muna 2014. dare rakagumisa kuti kodzero yokuvhima nehove haina kurambidza mitemo ine musoro yakananga pakuchengetedza. Mhaka iyi inoratidza kuti kunyorwa kwepakutanga kunogona sei chaizvoizvo kupfupikisa kupfurikidza nokunzwisisa kwakarurama kwenhau panzvimbo yokubvumira kunzwisiswa kwayo kutsanangura dare kukuru.

Louisiana: Chisarudzo cheDare reChikoro cheTangipahoa Parish

Mu .Tangipahoa state yeMitemo yeMitambo yeParis v. State [20], Court Supreme yakarangarira kana kugadziriswa kwemitemo yehurumende kuvamba chibvumirano chitsva chedzidzo yakapesana nerevo yapakuvamba yemitemo yakadzikama. Dare rakashandisa revo yavanhu, kunzvera maduramazwi namanyoro emitemo kubva pakokorodzano ya 1974. Yakarangarira kuti kuguma kwemitemo hakuna kuputsa chitsama chamashoko chakadzikama chetsikano nemhaka yerevo yapakuvamba ye "bhajeti red restion" inonongedzerwa pamitengo yegore negore, kwete kurambidzwa kwezvisungo zvikwereti zvirefu. Ichi chisarudzo chakabvumira kuromedzero kuti igotevetetetetetetetetetetetetete kuti itetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetetete yomunguva yemberi yomunguva yemberi yomunguva yemberi ya19.

Kupokanidzana Nokutsoropodza Kwouzita Hwapakuvamba Panzvimbo Yehurumende

Pasinei nokuwedzera kwesimba rayo, dzidziso yokuti zvinhu zvose zvakatanga zvatanga kuumbwa, inoshorwa zvikuru painoshandiswa kugadzirisa mitemo.

Kudzora Kwehurumende Nenyeredzi Kunoparadza

Vatsoropodzi vapakuvamba vanotaura kuti chiTsvina chedavidzo yedemocracy yavavhoti kupfurikidza nerevo yebumbiro remitemo inoisa chivakasha panhambo yakati yenhau yapfuura. Kana kugadziridzwa kupfuudzwa nevavakidzi vakakwirira kuti vapedze zvinetso zvazvino uno. Kwakadai sorgorithms kana kuti kuparadzwa kwemhoteredzo (mutongi wemavambo wechiNgezi anoomerera pare pachirevo che 18 kana kuti chechi19 revo yebumbiro remitemo kungava kwechinjo inobudirira kushandura donzo rechinjo. Mutongi William J. Brennan Jr. akakurumbira inonzi pakuvamba chiIsmosticism "arrocaped ," uye kuti chinoshanda nesimba pamwero paruwa, apo mabumbiro emitemo angagadzirirwa kuti ashandure kushandurutsiridzo.

Uyezve, kuvamba kunogona kurwisana nomuenzaniso wedare rehurumende. Matare makuru akawanda anotaura kuti akaunganidza makumi amakore omutemo wokududzira mhaka mumitemo yawo. Kana dare rikangoerekana rachinja kuruzivo rwemiitiro yemavambo, ringadzikamisa kariro dzisina kujeka muzvinhu, chibvumirano, uye mutemo weutsotsi. Dzidziso yespeach decisis inopa dzikamo yakati, asi vatongi vapakuvamba kazhinji kazhinji kazhinji vanotaura kuti mienzaniso yapakuvamba yakaipa inofanira kutongwa.

Zvinetso Mukuziva Revo Yapakuvamba

Kunyange murondedzero yepakutanga, pane kusabvumirana kukuru pamusoro penzira yokuwana nayo revo yapakuvamba. Nhau yebumbiro remitemo yehurumende inowanzosapupurirwa zvakanaka kana ichienzaniswa nezvinyorwa zvehurumende. Kokorodzano dzakawanda dzebumbiro remitemo dzakaitwa muzana ramakore rechi19, uye nharo dzadzo hadzina kubudiswa kana kuti kuparadzwa. Iri dare remitemo riri pachena kuti ritsamirire pamaduramazwi enguva imwe cheteyo, mapepanhau, uye rondedzero dzemitemo dzinonzi dzinotsigira kutsanangura zvinopesana. Semugumisiro, kuumbwa kwemitemo kunogona kuwedzera chisarudzo chedare panzvimbo pokuzvidzora.

Kukwanisa kuchinja uye Kodzero Dzepanguva Ino

Zvichida chishuvo chikuru zvikurusa chinoitira hanya mano orugwaro rwokutanga kugadzikisa kodzero itsva. Apo kugadziridzwa kunoumba zvakajeka maruramiro etsva `kadai sekodzero yokuva woga mumabumbiro enyika(* mavambo anofanira kusarudza kana maruramiro erudyi aya "revokutanga" akaganhurirwa kune zvakaonekwa muna 1972 kana kuti kana kuti rugwaro rwakafara rwakaitirwa kushanduka. Vamwe vatangiri, kufanana ne Justice Amy Barrett, vanobvuma kuti gadziriro dzakati, dzakadai sedzinorambidza "cruel" nechirango chechienzi," vakavaka mano okubvira nemhaka yokuti revo yavo yapakuvamba inonongedzera kumipimo inochinja. Asi iyi iri mukati mitoo yapakuvamba pamusoro pa [[FLD:] , mitoo yapakuvamba, inoramba kupesana, uye matare anoramba kupesana. [FFF]

Nguva Yemberi Yokutanga Panzvimbo Yehurumende

Zvimiro zvakasiana - siana zvinokarakadza kuti pesvedzero yemavambo pagadziridzo dzebumbiro-mitemo rehurumende ichangokura bedzi mumakore anouya. Chokutanga, Federalist Society namasangano akafanana zvinorovedza nokushingaira vatongi voruwa namakabharani vemitemo mumiitiro yapakuvamba. Gadziriro dzedzidzo yemitemo zvino dzinobatanidza nguva dzose marusando erevo yavanhu yapakuvamba, uye matare makuru mazhinji enyika akabudisa [ opiontions dzinodudza ruzivo rwedzidzo yapakuvamba.

Chechipiri, kukura kwemasangano e "bumbiro remitemo rakakurumbira" `kwakadai senhamburiko dzenzvimbo dzehurumende dzokudana Chikamu V) kazhinji kazhinji kunobatanidza kutaura kwepakuvamba pamusoro pesimba kuhurumende navanhu. Masangano aya anotaura kuti kuchinja kwehurumende kunofanira kurongwa kuti kudzore kunzwisiswa kwemitemo yehurumende.

Chechitatu, matare ehurumende anodikanirwa nenzira inowedzera nebumbiro remitemo rawo amene kugovera "kuchinja donzo" kana kuti "kuwana chokwadi" pakuronga. Zvinyorwa izvi zvinowanzobatanidza kunzvera kwenhau kwakaitirwa kutungamirira kududzirwa kwomunguva yemberi kwemavambo. Somuenzaniso, Texas Legislature yakabatanidza mashoko makuru enhau pamusoro pekodzero dzezvinhu norusununguko rwezvokurapa, achikarira kuvhara murevo yapakuvamba.

Zvisinei, dzidziso yacho hairambiki. Mapoka anofambira mberi akavamba kutanga mitoo inokwikwidzana yokududzira nayo − yakadai se "chipenyu chebumbiro remitemo" kana kuti "chibvumirano chemitemo chakaisvonaka chavanhu vose"" (kuti vanoramba zviri nani zvinodikanwa zvazvino uno pasina kuputsa chose chose murugwaro nenhau. matare ehurumende munyika dzebhuruu, dzakadai seNew York neWashington, akadzivisa kushandisa mavambo akaoma uye panzvimbo pezvo kutsamira pamipimo inowirirana kana kuti nhevedzano pakunzvera tsinhirano.

Mupeto: ChiShona Sendima Yose Iri Miviri Yakaedzwa

Kutonga kwapakuvamba kwakabvumikisa kuva gadziriro ine simba neyakasimba nokuda kwokududzira repurodziro dzebumbiro-mitemo yenzvimbo yehurumende. Simbiso yako parevo renhau inoisa chirango pavagadziri, hwirudzuro yedare, uye kugovera mutauro wavose nokuda kwekurukurirano yapamutemo. Bva iri kure nedzidziso yakagadzikana kana kuti inogamuchirwa munyika yose. matare ehurumende anopfuurira kuparapatika nezvinetso zvinoshanda zvokuwana revo yapakuvamba, kuoma kwemashoko nedemocracy, uye kudikanwa kwokuchinjira mutemo webumbiro-mitemo kumigariro inochinja pasina kurega mutemo.

Pakupedzisira, pesvedzero yetsika yapakuvamba pamutemo wehurumende yehurumende inoratidzira dzvinyiriro huru zvikuru muAmerica: chishuvo chehurumende yakatsiga, yakaganhurirwa mukurwisana nechinodikanwa chomutemo unochinjika, unogamuchira. Sezvo mabumbiro emitemo ehurumende anogadziriswa kugadzirisa chinhu chiri chose kubva pakodzero dzokuvhota kusvikira kuuchenjeri hwokugadzirwa, gadziriro yemavambo icharamba iri pakati-8 nepakati penharo dzinokwikwidzana zvikuru. Kunzwisisa uzivi uhu hunokosha nokuda kwemunhu upi noupi anoedza kutora rutivi mubasa rinopfuurira remitemo yehurumende.