Mavambo Nemhindumupindu yaChangamire weHurumende

Kudzivirirwa kwehurumende kunoitwa pamutemo, dzidziso inodzivirira hurumende pamatare okutonga kutoti dzichibvuma kukwidzwa, inobva kumutemo weEngland umo mambo asingagoni kuitirwa zvakaipa mukutonga kwapamutemo. Iyi nheyo yakapinzwa muAmerica jurisprudence kupfurikidza neAndeminth Amendment kuU.S., iyo inodzivisa matare ehurumende kutongwa nehurumende nevagari veimwe nyika kana kuti nyika yokumwe. Nokufamba kwenguva, dzidziso yakakudzwa kudzivirirawo hurumende pamatare avo vamene, isati yavapo muparadziri akajeka.

Zvisinei, kutsanangura kwazvino uno kwakarerekera kuzvinhu zvakasiyana neizvi. muUnited States, Dare Rapamusorosoro rakati kudzivirirwa kwekodzero yokuzvitonga hakushandi apo hurumende inoputsa mutemo wehurumende pasi peKineith Amendment, kana kuti apo Congress inojekesa dziviriro yemazambiringa kupfurikidza nomutemo unoitwa mumasimba ayo okuchengetedza.

Munyika yose, pfungwa yokudzivirira mamiriro ezvinhu enyika inosimbiswa muzvibvumirano zvakadai seUnited Nations Convention on Juristianical Immunial Intectal of States neyavo Fakitale , iyo inogamuchira rondedzero inoganhurira: hurumende dzinodzivirira mabasa echirevo (juremperii) asi kwete nokuda kwemibato yezvokutengeserana (juresition). Kutsaura uku kunoratidzira mubato wezvokutengeserana unozivikanwa navose mumasangano emitemo yenyika.

Kubatana Kwevanhu Nokuda Kwokuparadzwa Kwemhoteredzo: Nheyo Nemichina

Mitengo yavagari vemo mumutemo wemhoteredzo inopa pamutemo masangano ane mutoro wekuvadziko kumhoteredzo kana kuti kuvanhu nepfuma kupfurikidza nokushatisa, kuparadzwa kwenzvimbo yokugara, kana kuti zvimwe njodzi dzemhoteredzo. Miitiro mikuru inobatanidza mutemo unozivikanwa navose (kunangana, kudarika, kuregeredza) uye hurumende dzinoparira mhaka dzemitemo dzakadai seComprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) muUnited States, kana kuti Environment Live Direct in the European Union.

Pasi pezvisakiso zvikuru, boka rinogona kupiwa mhaka pasinei zvapo nemhosho kana mibato yaro ikaparira kuvadziko yemhoteredzo. Somuenzaniso, vashandi venzvimbo dzetsvina ine ngozi pasi peCERCLA vakanangana nechero dzinoverengeka nokuda kwendyiko dzokuchenesa. Kutaura kwakavakirwa paNegligence kunoda ufakazi hwebasa retarisiro, kuputsa, kuvhara, uye kuvadziko dzinova dzinodenha zvikuru apo mukwiridziridziridziri angava sangano ringadzivirirwa nedziviriro youtongi.

Kushanda kwechinhu chinokanganisa vanhu sechinhu chinodzivirira mhoteredzo kunotsamira pamano okukwikwidza nokugadzirisa kukuvara. Kana hurumende imene iri musvibisi (kunyange ingave ichishandisa mabasa ehondo, mabasa eindasitiri, kana kuti kuregeredza mukutarisira nyika dzavose) utachiona hunofanira kufamba pamhatsa yedziviriro yesimba rouchangamire nenheyo dzinoparira kukuvadziko.

Muitiro Wematurt Unoti: Chiratidzo Chewaiver

MuUnited States, Federal Tort Inotiess Act (FTCA) inodzivisa kuzvidzivirira kwapamutemo nokuda kwezvirevo zvokuda kutora mhaka zvinomuka nokuda kwezviito zvekuregeredza kana kuti zvakaipa zvinoparirwa navashandi vomuhurumende vari kuita mukati mebasa ravo. Zvisinei, FTCA ine mhatsa dzakawanda, kubatanidza nokuda kwezvinotaurwa pamusoro pokushandiswa kwebasa rokusarudza. Izvi “kupesana nechaunga chako.” Zvinowanzovanza zvakakodzera kuvadziko yemhoteredzo iyo inobva muchisarudzo chemiitiro kana kuti zvisarudzo zvokutungamirirazve, kunyange apo zvisarudzo izvozvo zvinoparira kuvadziko huru yemhoteredzo.

“Mubato wokungwarira unoratidzira muganhu pakati pekudzivisa kuzvidzivirira kwehurumende nokuzvidavirira. Matare nguva dzose anorangarira kuti kana zviito zvehurumende zvikabatanidza rutivi rworutongeso kana kuti chisarudzo, zviito izvozvo hazvidzivisiki mumitoro(kunyange kana rutongeso rwakaregeredzwa.”

Kunetseka Kukuru: Kudzikamisa Uchangamire Nokuzvidavirira

Kurwisana kukuru pakati pekuzvidzivirira panzvimbo yakwo kunoitwa nehurumende uye kukanganisa kunenge kuchiita vanhu vose kuti vasakuvare mhoteredzo kwakananga: kuzvidzivirira pazvirwere kunodzivirira hurumende kuti dzisapomerwa mhosva, asi kuparadzwa kwemhoteredzo kunokonzerwa nezviito zvehurumende kana kuti kusaita chimwe chinhu kunoda mushonga.

Rangarira kurasika kweoiri yemumvura inopisa , uko BP yaiiswa mumaruramiro ehurumende. Asi kana ngarava kana kuti nzvimbo yapamberi pehurumende yakaparira kurasika kwakafanana, vanyajambwa vaizotarisana nemhinganidzo yapamutemo inodzivisa dziviriro. Nenzira yakafanana, apo madhipatimendi emugwagwa mukuru anogadzira nenzira yokungwarira anoparira kufasha nokushatisa, kana kuti apo masangano ehurumende anodzosa masango anoparira kupisa izvo zvinokuvadza zvinhu zvapachiva, vatengi vanofanira kuzivisa mutengi anoshanda kuti awane muripo.

Mutemo Wemhosva Unoratidzira Kupesana

  • United States v. Mitchell (1983)[FLT: Dare Gurusa rakataura kuti hurumende ingagona kupiwa mhaka nokuda kwekuvadziko dzemari pasi peTucker Act kana mutemo ukasika maruramiro maduku kubhadharo, kunyange apo chisadzivisiro chapamutemo chinenge chashandiswa neimwe nzira. Iyi mhaka yakavhura nzira nhete nokuda kwekuvadziko yezvinhu zvinoda kuwirirana nokushandiswa zvisina kufanira kwezvitemeso.
  • Lujan v. National Wildlife Federation (1990)[FLT: 1]: Chinosimbisa zvinodikanwa zvokumira netapuro dzapamutemo dzinodzivisa mhoteredzo. Dare rakaganhurira mano avagari vemo okudenha zvisarudzo zvehurumende zvokutarisira nzvimbo, zvinosimbisa nenzira inobudirira kudzivirirwa muyamuro yakafara.
  • United States v. Navajo Rudzi (2009)[FLT: Dare rinoganhurirazve kuvadziko dzinorwisana nehurumende nokuda kwokuputswa kwemabasa okuzvinyima ane chokuita nezviwanikwa, dzichisimbisa basa rokusarudza rakasiana.

Izvi zviitiko zvinoratidza kuti vatongi vanowanzoteerera vatarisiri vematare uye vemitemo pakutarisira mhoteredzo, vachisiya nzvimbo duku yokuzvinyima pamutemo kutoti paine murambidzi akajeka, akajeka.

Kusarura Mumutemo Nevacheri: Kuparadza Nzvimbo Yakapoteredza

Pasinei zvapo nedzidziso yavose, nzira dzapamutemo dzinoverengeka dzinobvumira kuvadziko yehurumende kushandira mauto ehurumende nokuda kwokukuvadzwa kwemhoteredzo:

Mitambo Yapachivande

Mitemo inogona kukuvadza kudzivirira dziviriro yapamutemo kupfurikidza nemirau yakati. FTCA muenzaniso mumwe wakatanhamara; taura kuti maalog, anozivikanwa sezviito zvehurumende, kudzivirira njodzi nokuda kwezvirevo zvakati asi kazhinji kazhinji inotsiva kuvadziko (g. $500,000 pakutaura) uye inoda kupera simba. Mitemo yakawanda inewo mitemo inoisa mhaka mhoteredzo iyo inoita kuti masangano avose azvidavirire nokuda kwendyiko yokuchenesa, yakadai seNew Jersey’s Spill Compenicration and Control Act.

Mubato Wezvekutengeserana Unosiiwa

Apo hurumende inopinda mumibato yezvokutengeserana kana kuti yezvokuzvimirira (kupfuura mabasa echienzi pamutemo), matare anowanzoramba kudzivirirwa. Somuenzaniso, kana kambani yesimba yakazviwanira nyika ikadeura mafuta kana kuti chishandiso chemvura chemanisiparati ichishatisa rwizi, nyika ingabatwa sekambani ipi neipi yakavanzika. Dare Gurusa reU.S. rakaziva musiano uyu mu New York v. United States (1946), uye rinoramba riri dombo rekona reFTCA re “pan.

Mitemo Yemhoteredzo Nekubviswa Kwadzo Kwekubatana

Mitemo yemhoteredzo yakaita seCelean Water Act, Clean Air Act, uye Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RRRA) inobatanidza gadziriro idzo kudzivirirwa kwoutongi hwehurumende kwapanhambo nenhambo nokuda kwezvinangwa zvakati. Somuenzaniso, pasi peRCRA, “munhu upi noupi” anofanirwa nokuda kwokuputsa, uye shoko rokuti“person” rinobatanidza“ ripi neripi, sangano, kana kuti chishandiso cheUnited States. Nenzira yakafanana, Comprehensive Environmentation Resotion, Compensation, uye Liability Act inotakodzera zvakajeka masangano ehurumende nokuda kwendyo yokuchenesa, inoganhurirwa kudzivirira kwapamutemo.

Iyi mirau yokukweva zvishandiso zvine simba: zvinobvumira masangano avanhu voga kukwidza muparadziri anenge asvibiswa zvakananga mudare rehurumende. Zvisinei, matare akadenha kuzvidza kwakadaro sokuputsa Dare rePrefect rePrefection reA114. Mu Homer v. United States Army of Enginegers (2014, dare rehurumende rakatsigira mutengi weRCRA wechidzitiro chapamutemo cheCommunics, kwete kuti Dare iroro rakashanda pasi peMarongetamende namasimba aro ezvinhu.

Kunetsa Kunoita Kurongwa Kwomutemo Wemhoteredzo Nokudzora

Kubatanidzwa kwekuzvidzivirira pazvirwere kunoitwa nevanhu kunonyatsochinja mitemo yezvakatipoteredza munzira dzinoverengeka:

  • Kuzvinyima[[FLT: 1]: Kana hurumende ichiziva kuti inogona kupomerwa nokuda kwokuregeredza mhoteredzo, kungabvira zvikuru kuisa mari mumatanho okudzivirira nokuronga kwokungwarira. Nenzira inopesana, kudzivirira dziviriro kwakafara kunoderedza kuzvidavirira uye kunogona kutungamirira kukuderedza uko kunowedzera ngozi yemhoteredzo.
  • .Ichikamu : Migariro navanhu vanokuvadzwa nezvinoshatiswa nehurumende zvinotsamira pakuvadziko kuti zviwanezve ndyiko dzezvokurapa, kurasikirwa nezvinhu, uye kunaka kwoupenyu. Changamire asvotation anogona kusiya vanyajambwa pasina dziviriro, achiendesa mutoro wemari kuna avo vasingakwanisi kuutakura.
  • Kudzosera mutemo[[FLT: 1]: Masangano anomanikidzira angazengurira kuronda kuputswa namamwe masangano ehurumende nemhaka yokusada kuwirirana kwesangano, ukama hunobatanidza, kana kuti kudzivirira kupesana. Ikoku kwakatungamirira kumigariro umo zvivako zvehurumende zviri pakati pezvinoshatisa mhoteredzo zvakaipisisa, sezvinopupurirwa ne Governce Accounting Office /.
  • Public Trust Doctrine: Dzimwe nyika nenyanzvi dzinotaura kuti dzidziso yechivimbo chavanhu, iyo inosungisa hurumende kudzivirira pfuma yomusikirwo yavose, ganhuriro yapamutemo yezviito zvinoderedza pfuma iyoyo. Iyi rondedzero inoramba ichikwikwikwidzana asi yawana ganhuriro mukuchinja kwemamiriro okunze.

Kuenzanisa Kwakaitwa Munyika Dzakawanda

Gadziriro dzakasiana- siyana dzemitemo dzinobata kusagadzikana munzira dzakasiyana- siyana. MuCanada, Hurumende inowanzobatwa sechinhu chakavanzika chekudzivirira njodzi yenzanga, uye maruwa ane mutemo wakafanana. Rudzi chairwo rwekuvadziko rwakaita kuti matare eCanada abate kutaura kwokushatiswa sekuwira mu “isino pamutemo” yakakomba, nokudaro ichibvumira sututi. MuGermany, hurumende inowanzobatwa sechinhu chakavanzika nokuda kwokukanganisa mhoteredzo, uye [[FLT:] mutoro une ngozi unoshanda kumibato ine ngozi yevhuro, kubatanidza iyo inoitiswa nebhizimisi rehurumende. Dare reEurope reRurati rakarangarirawo kuti nyika yeEUP inofanira kugovera mishonga inoshanda zvakanaka nokuda kwokuputsa mutemo, zvinobudirira kudzora mamiriro ezvinhu enyika munyika yose mudzidziso iyoyo.

Iyi mienzaniso yokuenzanisa inokarakadza kuti kudzivirirwa kwakakwana kwedziviriro yokuzvitonga hakusi rutivi rwuri madikanwa rwekudzora kwazvino uno; panzvimbo pezvo, chisarudzo chetsika chinogona kugadziridzwa kusimudzira kuzvidavirira kwemhoteredzo.

Zvinetso Zvinouya: Kuchinja Kwemamiriro Okunze uye Kusabatana Kwehurumende

Sezvo chinjo yomugariro wokunze ichikura, mabasa ehurumende okudzivisa zvirwere ari kuedzwa zvitsva. Mitemo inorwisana nehurumende nokuda kwokuderedzwa kwokushaikwa kwokubudisa kusingakwaniswi . Yakadai se Urgenda mhaka muNetherlands uye U.S. inotenderwa nokuda kwenhau yokuti dare ringaraira kana dare richigona kutora matanho okubvuma kuderedza kubudiswa kwemhepo. Nepo dziviriro yemitemo isingashandisi kazhinji kazhinji kazhinji mukuyamuramuraniso yechipo (mirayiro inotenderwa kazhinji kazhinji kuvakuru vakuru vehurumende mumabasa avo adzo), zvirango nokuda kwekuvadziko dzakapfuura dzakakomba dzokudzivisa mamiriro okunze dzakasimba.

Chisarudzo cheDare Gurusa reU.S. 2021 mu [FT:0] BP P.L.C. v. Mayor neDoro Council of Baltimore chakakurukura nhau dzeproceded procate mukubviswa kwenhau dzemamiriro okunze kubva kudare rehurumende asi risina kusvika kumubvunzo wekudzivirira pamutemo. Zvisinei, hurumende dzehurumende idzo dzimene uye dzinoshandisa zvinogadzirwa zvezvicherwa zvemafuta dzingatarisana nezvinotaurwa nokuda kwezvinoshatisa voruzhinji, kudarika mutemo, kana kuti kundikano kunyevera kuti zvigorega kudzorwa kana hurumende ichida kudzivirira.

“Muchine mamiriro okunze akakomba, matare muNetherlands, Ireland, uye France akarangarira kuti kudzivirirwa kwesimba hakudziviriri hurumende pabasa radzo rebumbiro remitemo kudzivirira vagari vemo mukuvadziko yemhoteredzo. Iyi kombamiro yenyika yose ingadzosa dzidziso mumakumi amakore anouya.”

Kuita Zvinhu Nedzikamo: Kunobatsira Kuti Zvinhu Zvichinje

Vagadziri vemitemo nenyanzvi vakakarakadza chinjo dzinoverengeka dzokupedza kusawirirana pakati pokudzivisa dziviriro yehurumende nenjodzi yemhoteredzo:

  • Kuisa hwirutsiro Fract: Madare kana kuti masangano okugadza mitemo anogona kuganhurira kusiiwa kuzvisarudzo zvetsika dzenzvimbo yakakwirira, nepo achiita kuti regeredzo yedavi rebasa rizvidavirire. Somuenzaniso, chisarudzo chokuvaka mugwagwa mukuru muitiro; kundikano kuisa nenzira yakafanira maruva ibasa.
  • Kuparadzira Mutsika Dzemhoteredzo[[FLT: 1]: Misangano yemitemo yenyika yaigona kushatisa zvakajeka dziviriro nokuda kwezvikonzero zvose zvechiito mumitemo yemhoteredzo, kubvisa zvinhu zvinoparira kudhura uye kunonotsa kuchenesa.
  • Kutsiva Hurumende yeNzvimbo dzokuchengetedzwa kweLitaty Fund: Panzvimbo pokutsamira pamhosva dzomunhu oga, mari yokubhadharisa inosungirwa kuSupergradd] inogona kubhadharwa nekurukurirano uye kushandiswa kugadzirisa kuvadziko inoparirwa nezviito zvehurumende, nekodzero dzinodzorwa mukurwisana namapoka ane mutoro.
  • State Constitution Amendments[[FLT: 1]: Nyika dzinoverengeka dzine maruramiro emhoteredzo anogadziriswa (mutoo, Montana, Pennsylvania, New York) iro ringagona kududzirwa kukurira dziviriro yapamutemo pakupa rusununguko nokuda kwokupunzirwa.

Uku kuchinja kunoda kuda kwezvamatongerwe enyika, asi kudikanwa kwenzanga kuri kukura kweruramisiro yemhoteredzo nokuzvidavirira kungachinja.

Kupedzisa: Uko Dzidziso Yacho Inotsigira Nhasi

Ukama pakati pekuzvidzivirira pasimba romutemo uye kukanganisa mhoteredzo kunoitwa nehurumende dzinodzivirira mhoteredzo uye dzinopikisana.

Nevertheless, large gaps remain. The discretionary function exception, damage caps, and onerous procedural requirements often prevent victims from obtaining meaningful redress. This imbalance undermines both the deterrent effect of environmental law and the principle that polluters—including governments—should pay for the harm they cause.

Sezvo chinjo yomugariro wokunze inowedzera uye kushata kwemhoteredzo kuchiwedzera, dzvinyiriro yokuchinja dzidziso dzokusatapurwa nechakakwana kuchawedzera sezvingabvira. Dare, masangano okutonga, uye mitumbi yamarudzi ose zviri kuderedza zvishoma nezvishoma kudzivirirwa kwekuvadziko yemhoteredzo, zvichiratidzira kuziva kuti kuzvidavirira kunokosha kukutonga kwomutemo nedziviriro yezviwanikwa zvavose. Kuvanetsi vemitemo, vatsigiri vemhoteredzo, uye vaiti vemiitiro, kunzwisisa iyi nzvimbo kunodenha kufambisira mberi zvose zviri zviviri dziviriro yemhoteredzo nokusvika kururamisiro.

Nokuda kwokuravazve, nyaya dzeAmerican Bar Association pamusoro pekudzivirirwa kwesimba rehurumende dzinogovera mukunzvera kukuru kwezvinoitika zvemisi ichangobva kupfuura iyi, nepo UN Environment Programme yeUN pamusoro pekudzivirirwa kwehurumende nokukuvadzwa kwemhoteredzo inopa murangariro wenyika yose.