Indima yeenkundla kwibutho labantu, ingakumbi ngokuphathelele amalungelo oluntu kunye nokhuseleko olusemthethweni, lisiseko solawulo lwedemokhrasi. Iinkundla zisebenza njengabameli bobulungisa, ziqinisekisa ukuba imithetho isetyenziswa kakuhle kwaye zikhusela amalungelo abantu abachasene nemeko karhulumente namanye amazwe. Zilithuba lobundilele apho iimpikiswano ziconjululwa khona, apho umGaqo-siseko utolikwa khona, nalapho ulungelelwano lwamandla phakathi kwamasebe karhulumente lugcinwa khona. Ngaphandle kwemithetho ezimeleyo nenamandla elawulayo, amalungelo abantu ahlala ekho ethembekile kunokuba anyanzelelwe. Iinkundla zibonelele ukuba oorhulumente baphendule, ukuvavanywa komthetho, ukusetyenziswa komthetho, kunye nokunyanzeleka ukusetyenziswa komthetho.

Ukuqonda Amalungelo Asekuhlaleni

Amalungelo asisiseko kunye nenkululeko ekhusela abantu kucalucalulo nokuqinisekisa ukuba baphathwa ngendlela elinganayo phantsi komthetho. Aquka imibandela emininzi equka kodwa engaphelelanga kwinkululeko yokuthetha nokuchaza, ilungelo lokuvota, ilungelo lokukhetha, ilungelo lokuzimela, nokukhusela ucalucalulo olusekelwe kuhlanga, ubufana, unqulo, ukukhubazeka, isimilo, kunye nezinye iimpawu ezingokwabelana ngesondo. La malungelo asoloko ekhuselwa kwimimiselo yelizwe okanye kwisiseko somthetho, enika abantu isiseko sokuvavanya ukungabikho kokusesikweni enkundleni.

Ingcamango yale mihla yamalungelo abantu ilandela imvelaphi yayo kumaphepha afana neMagna Carta (1215), eyamisela umgaqo wokuba akukho namnye, kwanokumkani, ongaphezulu komthetho. IBhili yamaLungelo yaseUnited States (1791) iqhubeke iqinisa inkululeko efana nentetho, indibano, kunye nenkqubo efunekayo. Kwinkulungwane yama-20, iSindululo soMhlaba Samalungelo Abantu (1948) kunye nezivumelwano zezizwe ngezizwe ngezizwe zandisa ukuqondwa komhlaba wonke kwamalungelo abantu kuquka uqoqosho, intlalo, imilinganiselo yentlalo, kunye nenkcubeko. Ngonyaka waseSgosayini, umthetho wemimiselo enjengeSivumelo samaLungelo ka-196464 kunye neSivumelo samaLungelo saMandla ka-196565, kwaguqula umgaqo-bume welizwe osemthethweni ngokuphelisa ucalucalucalu, ngokuphelisa ucalucalucalu, umsebenzi, nokuvo.

Phezu kwazo nje ezi nkqubela, ukulwela amalungelo asekuhlaleni kuyaqhubeka. Iinkundla zihlala ziseyibala eliphambili apho amatyala amatsha avavanywa khona ``ii-''''''''''','iimpikiswano nxamnye nemithetho ye-ID elawulayo, ukurhoxiswa konqulo kunye ne-LGBTQ+ + amalungelo, okanye imibuzo emalunga nobungakanani bokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo ngexesha lamanani. iQULAL] EAL SE , yemimiselo yeDPROMETY , umzekelo, iye yaba sisixhobo esinamandla sokulwa nocalucalucalucalucalulo, kodwa ukutolika kwayo kuvela kwisizukulwana ngasinye.

Iintlobo Ezingundoqo Zamalungelo Abemi

  • [[FLT: 0] Ukukhusela Amalungelo: Ukhuseleko ekucinezelweni kwevoti, ukuvota, ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho yokuvota. Iityala ezifana [[FLT: 2]] Shelby County v. Umphathi [2013] ulungisile ugcino-lwazi lwendawo.
  • Inkululeko Yokuthetha noTshayina: Ukugada ukucocwa kolawulo lukarhulumente nokukhusela ukungavisisani kwezobupolitika. INkundla Ephakamileyo inikezele ezi zikhuseli kumntu omtsha osebenzelana nemimoya, kuquka ne-media yentlalo.
  • [[UMTL: 0] Inkululeko yonqulo: Ukulinganisa ukuqhelisa ngokukhululekileyo kunye nosikelo lwemida yokumisa, njengoko kubonwa kwiimeko ezifana [[FLT: 2]Burwell v. Hobby Lobby (2014].
  • [[UMTL: 0] Elungeni kwimfihlo: Ukugqithisa ulawulo lokuzala, ukuthembeka komzimba, kunye nelungelo logcino-lwazi. Roe v. Ukuvuleka [ kunye [[FLT]] isiseko se-Texas.[FLT]
  • Ungquzulwano lweNon-Discrimination: luchasa ukuphathwa ngokungafaniyo kwindlu, emsebenzini, kwimfundo, nakwinkonzo zikawonke wonke ezisekelwe kuhlanga, isini, ukukhubazeka, nezinye.

Inkqubo yezeejaji nomsebenzi wayo

Inkqubo yokugweba ibunjwe ngamaqondo ahlukeneyo eenkundla, ngalinye elinendima eyahlukileyo ekutolikeni nasekuqinisekiseni umthetho. Imisebenzi ephambili yenkqubo yenkundla iquka ukutolika imithetho nemimiselo, ukucombulula iimpikiswano phakathi kwamaqela, ukuxhasa umGaqo-siseko, nokukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye.

EUnited States, icandelo lejaji lesizwe linamacala amathathu aphakathi: iNkundla yeNtlanganiso yeNtlanganiso [umyinge wovavanyo], IiNkundla zeNtlanganiso zeNtlanganiso [iiiNkqutyana], (iNkundla yeNkqutyana yeSibheno], [iNkqutyana]], (iNkundla yemitshato yokugqibela). Inqanaba ngalinye lifeza injongo ekhethekileyo. Iinkundla zesithiliyo ziva izibakala umthetho, zisebenzisa izigwebo zokuqala. Appellatens zomthetho ezingezomthetho, imisela imizekelo esezantsi phakathi kwesiphalukazi. Inkundla ezilawulayo yentlangalo nganye yemiqatha yeemeko zomthetho.

Umongo ongundoqo wenkqubo yokugweba wophindo lomthetho , amandla okubhengeza imithetho kunye nemisebenzi yolawulo. Eli gunya lamiselwa ku imarbury v. Madison [183] [iii-(03]) kwaye iye yasetyenziswa ukubetha i-paration, ukwandisa amalungelo ovota, kunye nomlinganiselo wesigqeba. Iinkundla kwakhona zixhomekeke ku [[[FLT: 4.] deciss[FLT:] (umgaqo wesicwangciso) ukubonelela nokuyila) ukungqinela, nangona iimeko zendalo zifuna ukurhoxakeka.

Ngaphandle kweenkundla zikarhulumente, amagosa ejaji aseburhulumenteni asingatha inkoliso yamalungelo abantu, ngokungakumbi ezo zibandakanya izindlu, imfundo, kunye namapolisa. Imimiselo-siseko karhulumente isoloko inikela ukhuseleko oluphangaleleyo kunemiGaqo-siseko karhulumente, yaye iinkundla zikarhulumente ziye zaba yimfuneko ekuqhubeni amalungelo, njengokulingana komtshato phambi kwesigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo.

Indlela Iinkundla Eziwakhusela Ngayo Amalungelo Abemi

  • [[Uncedo:0] Isiphumlisi esingesosithintelo:[[FT:1] Iinkundla zingayalela umbutho karhulumente okanye umbutho wabucala ukuba uphelise uqheliselo lokukhupha ucalucalulo (umz., uwisela umthetho isithili sesikolo ukuba sisuse idegi).
  • Ukungafezeki: amaxhoba okwaphulwa kwamalungelo abantu anganikwa imbuyekezo yemali ngenxa yengozi echaphazelekayo.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Imigwebo yokwalatha: Iinkundla zingacacisa amalungelo asemthethweni amaqela ngaphandle kokuyalela isenzo esithile, zinika ukhokelo lwehambo yexesha elizayo.
  • Izenzo ezizizo: Xa iqela labantu lonzakala yinkqubo enye yocalulo, isenzo sodidi sibavumela ukufuna uncedo njengeqela, njengakwi Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo[.

Ityala Eliphakamileyo Lenkundla

Ukutyhubela imbali, amatyala aliqela abalaseleyo enkundla ePhakamileyo aye aguqula ngokuphawulekayo amalungelo abantu kunye nokhuseleko olusemthethweni eUnited States. La matyala abonisa amandla ejaji ekuphembeleni imigaqo nemigaqo-nkqubo yezentlalo. Isigqibo ngasinye asikhange sicombulule imbambano ethile kuphela kodwa kwakhona sichaze imida yenkululeko yomGaqo-siseko.

Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954)

Eli tyala lavakalisa ucalucalulo lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke olungekho mgaqweni, libhukuqa imfundiso “yahlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo” eyasungulwa ku Pnety v. Ferguson (1896). Umthetho ongqinelanayo, obhalwe yiNkulumbuso E-Earl Warren, wakholelwa ukuba ukuhlawulwa kwemfundo kawonke wonke kuhluza abantwana abambalwa abakhuselwa ngokulinganayo phantsi koMphengululo-14. Isigqibo sacaphula indlela yamalungelo abantu kwaye sanika umvuzo osemthethweni we-Rhulumente olunamandla we-Rhulumente. Ingumzekelo onamandla wendlela iinkundla ezinokukhulula ngayo urhulumente-sponsnervertive.

“ Sigqiba kwelokuba kwinkalo yemfundo kawonke-wonke imfundiso ‘ yokwahlukana kodwa elinganayo ayinandawo. Imfundo eyahlukeneyo ayilingani ngokwemvelo. . — IJaji eliyintloko u-Earl Warren, Brown v. Board of Education[[FLT: 1]]

[[UMTL: 0] Roe v. Iphepha [[UMTL] [1] (1973)

Esi sigqibo sibalulekileyo saliqonda ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko lebhinqa lokukhetha ukuqhomfa, simisela ukuba ilungelo lokuzikhusela ngasese kwi-Sirry Processol Claus of the 14neth Amendment. INkundla yaseka isiseko esincinane esilungelelanisa umdla karhulumente kubomi bomntwana nobenkululeko yebhinqa. Nangona Roe [ [iiindawo yokulondoloza uluntu] yabhukuqwa kumalungelo alo [.Dobbs v. Jackson’s Health Organization of Women’s [202]], ityala layo lihlala lilixesha elibalulekileyo kwingxoxo emalunga nokuqhamisa nokuzisela kunye nomzimba.

Icebo langaphandle: [[FLT: 0] Funda isishwankathelo esipheleleyo ku-Oyez

[[FLT: 0] Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Kwisigqibo esingu-5-44, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi ilungelo lokutshata liyinkululeko esisiseko ekhuselwe nguMphengululo weshumi elinesine, kwaye izibini ezitshatileyo ezingokwabelana ngesondo azinakukhanyelwa elo lungelo. Ummiselo owenziwe waphelelwa lithemba womtshato olinganayo kwaye waqonda ukuba ukulingana komtshato kuyinxalenye ebalulekileyo yesidima esilinganayo. Eli tyala libalaselisa ukuqondwa kwamalungelo abantu kunye nendima yejaji elinenxaxheba ekudluliseleni imigaqo ekwandisweni kwemiqathango.

“ UmGaqo-siseko uthembisa inkululeko kubo bonke abanokufikelela kuyo, inkululeko equka amalungelo athile akhethekileyo avumela abantu, kummandla osemthethweni, ukuba bachaze baze bachaze.” — IJaji Anthony Kennedy, Obergefell v. Hodges[[FL:1]

[[UMTL:0] Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

Eli tyala laseka ngoku-fuminita amalungelo eMiranda , ifuna ukunyanzeliswa komthetho ukwazisa abantu ngabanye ngelungelo labo lokuthula nokuba negqwetha elikhoyo ngexesha lokuncinwa kwegunya. Isigqibo sasiyimpendulo engqalileyo kuqheliselo lokuncinwa kwemibuzo enyanzelisayo kwaye saqinisekisa ukukhuselwa kweSigqibo sesihlanu ekuzikhuseleni ekuzifakeleni ngokwalo. Sihlala sisiso somthetho wenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho kunye nesivikelo ekunyanzelweni kwemiqathango.

Icebo langaphandle: [[FTL: 0] Jonga uluvo olupheleleyo kwi Cornell LII

Indima Yeenkundla Ezisezantsi

Ngeli xesha iNkundla ePhakamileyo isoloko ifumana eyona ngqalelo iphambili, iinkundla ezisezantsi zinendima ebaluleke ngokufanayo ekusingatheni imicimbi yamalungelo abantu. Ezi nkundla zisingatha ityala elininzi kwaye zinamandla okuchaza nokusebenzisa imithetho kwimigangatho karhulumente nekarhulumente, zimisela imizekelo esemthethweni enokubhencwa kwiinkundla eziphakamileyo, zize zinike abantu indawo yokufuna okusesikweni.

Iinkundla zesithili zeFederal zidla ngokuba zezokuqala ukumangalela amalungelo abantu, kuquka imingeni yeemeko zasentolongweni, ukuziphatha okubi kwamapolisa, imiqathango yokuvota, kunye nokufikelela kwisiphene. Imithetho yazo inokuba nempembelelo ekhawulezileyo kuluntu lwasekuhlaleni. Umzekelo, ijaji yenkundla yesithili isenokukhupha umyalelo wexeshana wokuthintela umthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho lolwaphulo-mthetho lolwaphulo-mthetho ukuba ungawenziwa ngoxa kusenziwa iziphumo. Iinkundla zesiphakamiso, ngemibandela yazo epapashicilelweyo, zidala umzekelo osisinyanzelo kwimimandla yazo. Ngenxa yokuba iNkundla Ephakamileyo ithetha malunga namatyala angama-80 kuphela ngonyaka, ekugqibeleni iinkuqulunqe ezininzi zigqibelwa kumgangatho we-arellaste.

Ityala lemeko kunye neenkundla zetyala zelizwe zilula ngakumbi kubemi abaqhelekileyo. Basingatha izibhengezo phantsi kwemithetho yamalungelo abantu yorhulumente, emininzi yayo enikela ukhuseleko olomeleleyo kunomthetho karhulumente. Umzekelo, iinkundla zeli lizwe eKhalifoniya naseNew York ziye zandisa ukhuseleko lomsebenzi ngaphaya kwemigangatho karhulumente. Iinkundla ezisezantsi zikwadlala indima ebalulekileyo ekutolikeni nasekumiseleni imithetho egunyazisiweyo .

Ityala eliphantsi leNkundla elinokuchaphazeleka kwamalungelo oMsebenzi

  • son v. Hansen (1967): A.C inkundla yesithili ilawula eyabetha inkqubo yokulandelela kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke eyabeka ngokungenakuthelekiswa nanto abafundi abamnyama kwimikhondo esezantsi yemfundo, esekelwe kwi-discrimination uvavanyo.
  • [[NTLT:0] Floyd v. IsiXeko saseNew York (2013): inkundla yesithili yephondo yafumanisa ukuba uqheliso lwe-NYPD- kunye ne-frisk lwaphula iziHlaliso zesine neshumi elinesine, ukucwangcisa iinguqu.
  • Abazali ababandakanyekileyo kwizikolo zoluntu v. Seattle District No. 1 (2007): Isekethe yeNinth ekuqaleni yaxhasa izabelo zomfundi ezithe qwa, nangona kamva iNkundla Ephakamileyo yajika — ibonisa isandi esiphakathi kweenkundla ezisezantsi neziphezulu.

Ucelomngeni Lokujamelana Nenkqubo Yezeejaji

Phezu kwayo nje indima enzima efezwa ziinkundla ekukhuseleni amalungelo abantu, bajamelana nocelomngeni oluninzi. Ukugweba nokubekwa kweliso kwezakhono kusongela ukuthembana kwabantu, njengoko ukumiswa kwenkundla ephikiswayo kunye nolwahlulo olulawulayo phakathi kwabagwebi kuphakamisa imibuzo ephathelele ukungakhethi buso. Ukufikelela kokusesikweni kuhlala kungumqobo kungumqobo onzulu kuluntu oluphantsi; iimali ezifumanayo azikwazi ukuhlawula amagqwetha, kwaye imibutho yoncedo lwasemthethweni ihlala iphantsi kokubekwa phantsi. Iinkqubo zenkundla eziqeqeshiweyo kunye nokulibaziselwa ixesha elide kuthetha ukuba okusesikweni kunokuthi kumiselwe iminyaka emininzi, kusinde ukuphumelela kwayo.

Olunye ucelomngeni luyi i-“shadowtiet" — izigwebo zikaxakeka ezikhutshwe yiNkundla ePhakamileyo ngaphandle kokushwankathela okanye ukuphikisa okupheleleyo. Abanye abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi ezi zigqibo, kwimiba yeqhosha elishushu okanye kumalungelo okuvota, ukuval- ngaphandle kwemiqathango kunye nokukhutshwa kokubonakala ngaphaya. Ngaphezu koko, unyuko olukwizikhuseli zolawulo [[ kusenokulinganisela amandla eenkundla ukuvavanya ulawulo kwimicimbi ethile xa amalungelo abantu abalawulwayo ebonqikelelo.

Imibandela yenkqubo efana nokucalucalula okungagqibeki phakathi kwabagwebi kunye namajaji ikwachaphazela iziphumo. Uhlolisiso lubonise ukwahluka kobuhlanga ekugwebeni nasekunikezeleni imiqathango yokuqala. Ukulungisa le mingeni kufuna indlela ecwangcisiweyo: ukuxhasa iinkundla, ukuntywila kwemithetho, ukwandisa iinkonzo ze-probono, kunye notshintsho lwemiqathango ecwangcisiweyo ukucutha.

Icebo langaphandle: [[FT:0] Brennan Center yeJaji — Iqinisa Iinkundla

Ikamva Lamalungelo Abemi Ezinkundleni

Njengokuba ibutho liguquka, ngokufanayo kufuneka licaciswe kwaye kunyanzeliswe amalungelo abantu ngaphakathi kweenkundla. Ukudibanisa iimbambano ezifana nokuzimela kwamanani, imozulu, kunye nokungalingani kwenkqubo kuzisa ucelomngeni olutsha olukhoyo kwijaji. Ikamva lamalungelo abantu kwiinkundla liza kuquka ukutshintsha komgaqo-nkqubo wobugcisa obutsha — imibuzo enxulumene nokujongana nomthetho, ukuchana kwemithetho yemithetho yokuziphatha, kunye nokuba nogcino-lwazi kuya kuvavanya iimfundiso ezikhoyo zemfihlo. Iinkundla ziyakufuna ukumelana noshenxiswa oluthayo nocalucalu lulu lobuhlanga olusingqongileyo, njengokuba uluntu olunombala luneethe qhutyeko olubileyo longcolise ungcoliso nemozulu.

Omnye umda yimfazwe eqhubekayo yamalungelo okuvota. Emva kokuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo ithe yalula iCandelo 5 loMthetho wamaLungelo ku-[Flby County v. Ukhombo [2013], iinkundla ezisezantsi zizaliswe lucelomngeni lokumisela imithetho ye-ID yokuvota, iinkqubo zokucoca, kunye nokulungisa iimaphu. Ukulindela ukuba kuqhubeke ukubekwa phambili komthetho wamaLungelo njengemithetho karhulumente enyanzela imiqathango emitsha. Ngokufanayo, ukusetyenziswa kwenkululeko yonqulo kunye nemithetho elwa nolwaphulo-mthetho yokulwa nolwaphulo-mthetho kuzakuvelisa ukhetho olungakumbi lwesikolo kunye neemeko zikawonke wonke.

Ukufikelela kokusesikweni kuza kuba ngumxholo ozingisileyo. Ubuxhakaxhaka, obufana nengxoxo ye-intanethi kunye neefomu zomthetho ezincedisiweyo ze-Al, bunganceda kwiblorho umsantsa wabameli abazimelayo, kodwa iinkundla kufuneka ziqinisekise ukuba ezi zixhobo aziziseli ikhethe okanye azibini ezinokuchanabeka. Ukutyhalela phambili kweminye imibandela eyahlukeneyo — ngokwemiqathango yohlanga, ubufana, ubufana, kunye nemvelaphi yezobugcisa — kuza kuqhubeka, njengoko uphando lubonisa ukuba izihlalo ezizinzileyo zizisa iimbono ezibanzi kumalungelo abantu.

“ Isiphelo sendalo yemilinganiselo yokuziphatha sinde, kodwa sigobe kwimithetho esesikweni.” — isoloko ichazwa nguMartin Luther King Jr., ebonisa indima ende yexesha elide yeenkundla kwinkqubela kumalungelo abantu.

Iinkundla azinakuba yedwa inkqubela yamalungelo abantu; inyathelo lowiso-mthetho nelolawulo liyimfuneko. Kodwa indima yejaji njengendlela yokuhlola kwamanye amasebe kwaye njengendawo yokulawula kwabo bangenagunya iqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo asekuhlaleni ahlala ekho. Amashumi eminyaka azayo aya kuvavanya enoba iinkundla zinokukwazi kusini na ukuqhelanisa nobugcisa obukhawulezayo, intlalo, kunye nemekobume ngoxa zigcina ukuzinikela kwazo okungundoqo ekulungiseni okulinganayo phantsi komthetho.

Isiphelo

Indima yeenkundla kwibutho labantu ibalulekile kumzabalazo oqhubekayo wamalungelo abantu kunye nokhuseleko olusemthethweni. Ngokuchaza kwazo umthetho kunye namandla awo okuxhasa imigaqo-siseko, iinkundla azikhuseli amalungelo abantu kuphela kodwa zikwabumba imilinganiselo yokuziphatha nemigaqo yokuziphatha yoluntu. Njengoko sikhangela kwikamva, kubalulekile ukuqinisekisa ukuba la malungiselelo ahlala ebotshelelwe ngokusesikweni, ukungalungisi, nokukhusela amalungelo abantu. Iinkundla ze- Independent, iinkqubo ezisesikweni, kunye nokunyanga okufikelelekayo akuyomfuneko.

Ukugqithisa kumalungelo akhoyo, tyelela i- i-Dominic Liberties Union (ACLU) — Impikiswano iphepha[[FLT: 1].