Amandla Asekuhlaleni Achazwa: Yintoni Eyenza Urhulumente Wesizwe Wahluke?

Urhulumente wezwe wase-United States usebenza phantsi kwenkqubo ekhethekileyo eyahlulayo koorhulumente belizwe. Ukuqonda oku kwahluka kubaluleke kakhulu kubafundi nakubafundisi ngokufanayo. Ngokungafaniyo namaphondo, urhulumente wesizwe ufumana igunya lakhe ngqo kumGaqo-siseko, odala ulwahlulo olulungelelanisiweyo olufanelekileyo lwamandla. Eli nqaku lihlola amagunya karhulumente wesizwe, iziphumo zawo, nendlela ababumba ngayo ukulawulwa kwelizwe. Ngokuhlolisisa iziseko zomgaqo-siseko, amagunya angundoqo orhulumente, imiqathango, kunye neenkcazelo zeNkuhlalo ePhakamileyo, abafundi baya kufumana uxabiso olunzulu ngenzululwazi yesakhiwo esiye saziindawo eMerika ephethe ulawulo-demokhrasi kangangeenkulungwane ezimbini.

Isakhiwo Somanyano

Umanyano luyinkqubo karhulumente apho igunya lihlulwe phakathi kwegunya elisembindini kunye namaqela ezobupolitika azimeleyo. EUnited States, oku kuthetha ukuba amandla ahlulwa phakathi korhulumente wesizwe noorhulumente belizwe. Esi sakhiwo sidweliswe kumGaqo-siseko wase-U.S., omisela isiseko samagunya orhulumente ngeli ligcina igunya elithile kumazwe. Abaseki besakhiwo benziwe ngorhulumente ukunqanda nayiphi na into ekhoyo ukuba ibe namandla kakhulu, badala i-"i-composidensity" apho abemi balawulwa khona yimi engoontakabini eyahlukeneyo kodwa ehlalayo.

Imvelaphi engokwembali yoburhulumente inokulandela iingxoxo phakathi kwamaFederalist kunye namaAnti-Fedalist ngexesha lokwandiswa kwemiqathango. Amanani anjengoAlexander Hamilton axhasa urhulumente onamandla ombindi womanyano nozinzo lwezoqoqosho, ngelixa uThomas Jefferson egxininisa ukubaluleka kolawulo lukarhulumente. Ulalanisa okuye kwavela kwanika urhulumente wesizwe amandla akhethekileyo, adweliswe ngexesha eshiya onke amanye amagunya kumagunya kumaphondo okanye kubantu — umgaqo owathi kamva wamiselwa kwiSinyulo seshumi.

Umqulu oluhlaza womGaqo-siseko

UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. ngumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe, yaye uchaza umlinganiselo wamagunya orhulumente. ICandelo I, iCandelo 8, liqulethe uluhlu olungundoqo lwamagunya ombutho, ngelixa iGatya II linika umongameli igunya eliphakamileyo, kwaye iGatya III limisela isebe eligwebayo. Igatya elilawulayo loMgaqo-siseko elikwiGatya lesi-6 liqinisekisa ukuba umthetho karhulumente ulawula imithetho engqubanayo, kodwa kuphela xa urhulumente wesizwe esebenza kwigunya lakhe elisemthethweni.

Amandla karhulumente wesizwe anokubekwa ngokwamaqela kwiindidi eziliqela ezingundoqo:

  • Amandla adweliswe ngamanani: La macandelo adweliswe ngokukhethekileyo kwinqaku I, Icandelo 8 lomGaqo-siseko. Aquka amandla okulawula irhafu, ulawulo lwerhafu yelizwe lasentla nelizwe, imali yemali, ukubhengeza imfazwe, ukuphakamisa imikhosi, nokuseka iiofisi zeposi. La mandla abhalelwa ngabom ukulinganisela nokuchaza, ukulwa kwegunya elisembindini.
  • Amandla asetyenzisiweyo: La mandla awachazwanga ngokucacileyo kodwa ayimfuneko ukuzalisekisa amandla adwelisweyo. Athathwe kumthetho ofanelekileyo nofanelekileyo ka Claus, okwasaziwa njenge binzana elinwenwayo, elifunyanwa ekupheleni kwenqaku I, Icandelo 8. Eli candelo linika iBhunga igunya ukwenza yonke imithetho "eyimfuneko nefanelekileyo" ekwenzeni amandla alo adweliswe, ukunikezela ujijeko lotshintsho kwiimeko zohlanga.
  • Amandla aPhakamileyo: La ngamandla urhulumente wesizwe anawo ngokuba yinto elawulayo kwisigaba sehlabathi. Umzekelo, amandla okulawula ukufuduka, ukugxotha abantu abangengobemi, kunye nokufumana umhlaba kugqalwa njengefa lemveli kuba bengamazwe azimeleyo. Nangona engadweliswanga ngokucacileyo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iyawamkela la mandla njengeyimfuneko kulongamo lwesizwe.

Amandla Angundoqo Ayasebenza

Ukuze sikuqonde ngakumbi oko kwenza urhulumente wesizwe wahluke, kuluncedo ukuhlolisisa indlela amandla amakhulu karhulumente asebenza ngayo. La magunya avumela urhulumente wesizwe ukuba alungise imicimbi engaphaya kwemida yesizwe kwaye afune izicombululo ezifanayo zesizwe.

Igunya lokuhlawula irhafu

Urhulumente wesizwe unegunya eliphangaleleyo kwirhafu yerhafu ye-levy kubantu ngabanye nakumashishini. Eli gunya libalulekile ekuxhaseni imisebenzi karhulumente, ukhuseleko lwesizwe, izibonelelo, neenkqubo zentlalo. UMthetho weSixwemeth Amendment, wagunyaziswa ngowe-1913, iBhunga eligunyazisiweyo ukumisela irhafu yengeniso ngaphandle kokwabelana ngayo phakathi kwamazwe, ukukwazi kwemali okubonelelwa ngokuphawulekayo kwemali yemali karhulumente.

Irhafu yale mihla iquka irhafu yengeniso, ukuhlawula irhafu ebhatalwayo yeNtlalo-ntle neMedicare, irhafu yenkampani, irhafu yerhafu kwimpahla efuduswayo, kunye nerhafu esetyenziswa kwizinto ezifana nepetroli kunye notywala. I-International Revolution Service (IRS) inikela le rhafu, iqokelela izigidi-zigidi zeerandi ngonyaka. Eli gunya alipheleli nje ngemali karhulumente kodwa livumela neMbutho ukuba iphembelele ukuziphatha okungokoqoqosho nangemiqathango yerhafu, ngokunelisa inkqubo yesizwe kwimimandla enjengamandla anokubuyiselwa, ubunini bekhaya, kunye nokugcinwa kwempilo.

Umgaqo-nkqubo worhwebo

Elinye lawona magunya abalulekileyo karhulumente wesizwe ngumthetho worhwebo oluphakathi kwelizwe namazwe ngamazwe phantsi kweCommerce Clause (Ingcaciso, Icandelo 8, uClause 3). Eli gunya liqinisekisa ulwakhiwo olumanyeneyo lwezoqoqosho ngaphaya kwamaphondo lithintele ukuba amazwe angqubanayo ekumiseleni imithetho yezorhwebo enokuthi iphazamise intengiso yesizwe.

INkundla ePhakamileyo ichaza ngokwembali iCommerce Claus ngokuphangaleleyo. [FLT]Gibbons v. Ogden (1824), iJaji ePhakamileyo John Marshall wachaza imicimbi yezorhwebo ngokubanzi ukuquka zonke iintengiso, kuquka uqhubo-hambo ngenqanawa. Le mithetho yamisela ukuba urhulumente urhulumente unegunya lorhwebo olunqamlezileyo iintambo zikarhulumente. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, eli gunya landiswa ukulawula imisebenzi echaphazela ushishino oluphezulu, nokuba yeyasekuhlaleni. Umzekelo, amalungelo e-Cento e-Octal Claus axhomekeke kulawulo lwe-Rocesterces kwindawo kawonke, kunye nomthetho we-Affordices (umthetho ophakamileyo weNkuxhasa iNtoliki yeNto yolawulo).

Ukhuselo lwesizwe nemicimbi yamazwe angaphandle

Urhulumente wesizwe unomthwalo wembopheleleko epheleleyo yokukhusela uhlanga kunye nehambo yolwalamano lwamanye amazwe. UmGaqo-siseko unika iBhunga igunya lokuvakalisa imfazwe, ukuphakamisa nokuxhasa imikhosi, nokulungiselela ukhuselo oluqhelekileyo. Umongameli, njengentloko-ntloko yemikhosi exhobileyo, ukhokela imisebenzi yomkhosi kunye nenkqubo yokubumba yamazwe angaphandle.

Eli gunya liquka ukukwazi ukuqhubana ngezivumelwano (ngemvume yeNdlu yeeNtlanga), ukumisela oorhulumente bangaphandle, nokuqaphela oorhulumente bamanye amazwe. Urhulumente wesizwe ukwagcina izixhobo zenyukliya, amaqumrhu obulumko, kunye nomkhosi omileyo onokuthunyelwa ekhaya nakwamanye amazwe. Ukusetyenziswa kwemali yokuzikhusela kungumsebenzi obalulekileyo woqingqo-mali lwesizwe, ebonisa imbopheleleko ephambili karhulumente yokukhusela uhlanga kwizisongelo zangaphandle. Ukuqhelisa okungenakubonwa oku kuquka uGunyaziso Lomkhosi wasemkhosini emva komkhosi wemfazwe wemfazwe wezomkhosi kunye nemisebenzi yomkhosi eqhubekayo kwimimandla enjengeMpuma ephakathi.

Kwimicimbi yamanye amazwe, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaliqonda igunya elimiselwe ngumongameli lokusebenza njengelizwi lokuphela kohlanga ekuthetheni. United States v. Curtiss-Woright Rhweba ngaphandle komkhosi. (1936), iNkundla yachaza ukuba umongameli unenkululeko ephangaleleyo kwimigaqo yamazwe angaphandle, esulelwe kuMgaqo-siseko kuphela kodwa kumandla engokwemvelo ohlanga olulawulayo.

Ukufuduka Nokuziqhelanisa

Urhulumente wesizwe unamandla apheleleyo okulawula ukufuduka — ukungena, ukuhlala, kunye nokugxothwa kwabantu abangengobantu. Eli gunya lizuzwe ngolawulo kwaye likwasekelwe kwiSiko loMgaqo-siseko uClaus (ISiqendu I, ICandelo 8, Claus 4), enika igunya eligunya leNgqungquthela ukumisela umthetho ofanayo wokwemvelo.

Umthetho womanyano lokufuduka umisela iindidi zemvume, iinkqubo zokhuseleko, kunye namabala okugxotha. ISebe loKhuseleko lwaseHomeland, ngoorhulumente abafana noMasipala base-U.S. kunye neeNkonzo zoGunyaziso kunye noLawulo lwe-Immigration kunye ne-Crometicment Encostomment (ICO), lilawula le mithetho. Urhulumente wesizwe uyalawula kwakhona onokuba ngummi wase-U. ofuna abaphambukeli abaphambukeli ukuba badibane, ulwimi, nolwazi loluntu. Amazwe ayakwazi ukulawula ukufuduka, nangona engakwazi ukuthobela imithetho yezomthetho echaphazela ukufikelela kwabo kwinzuzo, logama nje imithetho engangqubani nomthetho karhulumente. Immigration kunye nomthetho wesizwe ka-19665, apho kusungulwe khona ukulawulwa kwenkqubo yokhuseleko nolawulo lwamazwe, kunye neenkqubo zokhuseleko lwexeshana.

Inkonzo yeposi neMisebenzi yoLuntu

Ngoxa amandla karhulumente karhulumente okumisela iiofisi zeposi kunye neendlela zeposi (Umchazi weCandelo lesi-8, u-Classias 7) ebeluncedo ekumanyaniseni uhlanga. Inkonzo yePostal Service yase-U.S. ithumela iposi kuyo yonke idilesi yelizwe, ixhasa urhwebo nonxibelelwano. Ngaphezu koko, iCopyright nePaten Claus (umsebenzi weClause 8) inika iBhunga amandla okukhusela ababhali nabasunguli bamalungelo akhethekileyo kwimisebenzi yabo yamaxesha alinganiselwe, ikhuthaza ukusungulwa nokuboniswa kobuchule. Eli gunya lixhasa i-Patenthrest neHofisi yezorhwebo ne-Oficire, ezinika kunye ne-Oficirensi (ice) ezigunyazisa amalungelo ezinto zobulumko kumazwe ngokubanziwabonke.

Imida Yegunya Lomanyano

Ngoxa urhulumente wesizwe enamandla abalulekileyo, kukho imida ebalulekileyo emiselwe kumGaqo-siseko ukuthintela ukusetyenziswa kakubi kwegunya. Le mida ibalulekile ekulondolozeni ulungelelwano phakathi kwamandla esizwe naworhulumente.

Ukuhlaziywa Kweshumi Nolongamo LwasebuRhulumente

Amagunya eSindululo seshumi angenawo amagunya karhulumente karhulumente nabantu. Oku kulungiswa kusisikhumbuzo sokuba urhulumente wesizwe ungomnye wamagunya alinganiselweyo, adweliswe ngokwemiba. Amazwe anegunya kwimicimbi enjengemfundo, umthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho, ukusetyenziswa komhlaba, umtshato, kunye norhwebo lwamazwe angaphandle. Kwakhona asebenzisa amandla amapolisa ukukhusela impilo kawonke-wonke, ukhuseleko, kunye nemilinganiselo yokuziphatha — amandla angenayo urhulumente.

INkundla ePhakamileyo inyanzelise le mida kumatyala afana [FLT] United States v. Lopez (1995), apho iNkundla yabetha phantsi iGun-Free School Counts Act kuba ithwele umpu kufuphi nesikolo awuwuchaphazeli urhwebo lwamazwe. Esi sigqibo saphawula ukubuyiselwa okubalulekileyo kwe-Cendele amandla ka-Classiaste, ukukhumbuza iiKhomkomfathi ukuba azikho zonke iingxaki zesizwe. Ngokufanayo, [[FLTL:] Shicilelaz. United States (1997)[FLT], iNkundla yesizwe yabonisa ukuba abaphathi belizwe begunya lemipuwase-Rhulumente, ikhumbuza ukuba umgaqo wolawulo lwe-omatiko-om, ukuqinisekisa umgaqo wemeko.

Inkqubo yeepeyinti nolungelelwano

Inkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela imisela imiqathango engakumbi ngokuqinisekisa ukuba akukho sebe linye likarhulumente elinamandla kakhulu.

  • [[UMTL:0] Ukuvavanywa okugunyazisiweyo: ulawulo lweNgqungquthela yemali, lungahluza kwaye lususe umongameli kunye nabagwebi borhulumente, kwaye kufuneka zivume izivumelwano kunye nokubekwa kwequmrhu.
  • [[UMTL:0] Uvavanyo olusebenzayo: Umongameli angagunyazisa umthetho, amisele iijaji zesizwe ngemvume yeNdlu yeeNtlanganiso, kwaye anikezele imiyalelo yegunya.
  • [[NKQUBO: 0] Ukuvavanya okuqulethwe yi-judicial: INkundla ePhakamileyo ingavakalisa imithetho okanye izenzo zesebe eliphetheyo ezingekho mgaqweni ngohlolo lwetyala, amandla amiselwe Marbury v. Madison (1873).

Oku kwahlula amagunya kuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente wesizwe akanakulindisa lula igunya lakhe ngaphandle kokujamelana nenkcaso evela kwelinye isebe. Umzekelo, xa uMongameli Franklin D. Roosevelt wazama ukwandisa iNkundla ePhakamileyo ngo1937 (isicwangciso seSahlulelo), iKhonklane kunye noluntu lonke, kwaye isicwangciso somcimbi asiphumelelanga.

Indima YeNkundla Ephakamileyo Ekulawuleni Igunya Elilawulayo

INkundla Ephakamileyo inendima ebalulekileyo ekutolikeni umGaqo-siseko nasekugqibeni umlinganiselo wamagunya orhulumente. Amatyala ophawu lwelizwe aye achaza achaza aphinde achazwa igunya lesizwe ekuhambeni kwexesha, ebonisa ukutshintsha kweemfuno zoluntu neentanda-bulumko zogwebo.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Eli tyala lidibeneyo laseka imigaqo emibini egxekayo: imfundiso yamagunya athenjiweyo kunye nobukhulu bomthetho karhulumente phezu komthetho wesizwe. Xa uMaryland wazama ukurhafisa iBhanki yesibini yeUnited States, uMgwebi omkhulu uJohn Marshall wagqiba kwelokuba iBhunga linamandla achaziweyo okuyila ibhanki yesizwe phantsi koMgaqo-siseko ka-Celaskoms, nangona uMgaqo-siseko ungagunyazi ibhanki enjalo. Marshall wabhala ngokudumileyo ukuba "Umandla erhafuthelweni abandakanya amandla okutshabalalisa," kwaye ngoko ke amazwe akakwazi ukuphelisa amaziko orhulumente orhulumente. Esi sigqibo sandiswa ngamandla orhulumente orhulumente phantsi komthetho omthetho osemthethweni.

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)

Kule meko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yacacisa umlinganiselo wamandla eBhunga lokulawula urhwebo lwamazwe aphakathi. INew York yagunyazisa ukulawulwa kwephenyane lomphunga emanzini ayo, kodwa umphikisi osebenza phantsi kwemvume karhulumente wacel ’ umngeni umthetho wequmrhu. INkundla yagqiba kwelokuba urhulumente wezorhwebo uClaus ekhutshiweyo, njengoko urhwebo luquka ukuqhuba inqanawa kunye nokunyusa yonke imicimbi enqamleza imigca karhulumente. Esi sigqibo samisela ukuphakama kukarhulumente kurhwebo lwamazwe angaphandle kwaye saseka isiseko somgaqo wezoshishino zoqoqosho lwale mihla.

IUnited States v. Lopez (1995) neMerika yeMihla Yorhwebo uClaus

Emva kwamashumi eminyaka eenkcazelo zeChwetheza u-Claus, United States v. Lopez yaphawula inkqubela. Inkundla yathi iGun-Free School Commones — eyakwenza kwaba ngumthetho karhulumente ukuba ube nezixhobo zokulwa ezikufutshane nesikolo — ukudlula amandla eBhunga lorhwebo ngenxa yokuba umsebenzi awuchaphazamisi rhwebo lwamazwe. IJaji enkulu uWilliam Rehnquist yachaza ukuba uClausle akangomandla aqhelekileyo amapolisa kwaye iBhunga elimele libonise unxibelelwano oluthe ngqo norhwebo. Eli tyala livuselelwe imidaliselwano yezo mbuso kwaye kamva laqiniswa ku United States.[2]

Enye imeko ebalulekileyo yangoku ngumthetho womntu ngamnye. Inkundla yaxhasa ugunyaziso olusemthethweni lwamandla e-Intependent Business v. Sebelius (202), olucelw'uluvo olugunyazisiweyo lukarhulumente we-Affordicure Care Act. INkundla yaxhasa ugunyaziso njengomthetho wokusetyenziswa kwamandla erhafu kaHulumeni, kodwa yabambelela ekubeni ayinakuthethelelwa phantsi koMgaqo-siseko ka-Clausleeste Classiaske ngenxa yokuba umgaqo-siseko awugunyazi urhulumente ukuba afune ukuba abantu benze umsebenzi worhwebo.

Ingxoxo zale mihla ezimalunga nomkhosi wesizwe

Ukwahlulwa-hlula kolawulo phakathi korhulumente wesizwe norhulumente kuseyimbambano yempikiswano kwezobupolitika zale mihla. Iindawo eziliqela ezingundoqo zibonisa impikiswano eqhubekayo ngomgangatho ofanelekileyo wegunya likarhulumente.

I- I-Health Care : Umthetho we-Affordcuble Care Act wacellwa kuqala njengonothwali-mandla karhulumente. INkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba kwelokuba urhulumente wengingqi akanakusongela amazwe ngokuphulukana nayo yonke inkxaso-mali yeMedicaid ukuba aye ala ukwandisa umgangatho — uloyiso olungundoqo lolawulo lukarhulumente. Ukususela ngoko, amazwe amaninzi aye akhetha ukulwandisa, adala umsebenzi wokuthethelela othe abagxeki besithi i-fashoni yesizwe balujongela phantsi umgangatho wesizwe.

[[NTLT: 0] Ummiselo we-Entronary Regate: Umthetho woMoya ococekileyo kunye noGaqo-manzi unika i-Evironmental Protection (EPA) igunya elibanzi lokulawula ungcoliseko. Ama-EPA asoloko evavanya ukuba angene kwimithetho ye-EPA, ephikisa ukuba angene kwigunya lesizwe lokusebenzisa umhlaba kunye nolawulo lwezibonelelo. Inkundla ephakamileyo ilinganise kwiimeko ezifana ne [FLT]] Massachuts v. [2007]. , eqinisekisa igunya le-EPA lokulawula ukungqubana nokufuduka kwegesi, kunye [[FLT] ne-iright [2] i-f22] i-f22], elinciphisa amandla oonothunywa benkqubo boshishino-ogciso olucacileyo. [ijibiliso

Izindululo zempilo ye-Family: Isifo se-COVID-19 sabalaselisa uxinezeleko phakathi kokhokelo lukarhulumente kunye nezenzo zikarhulumente. Ngelixesha urhulumente wesizwe ekhupha ingcebiso yempilo yesizwe kwaye wasasaza imithi yokugonya, urhulumente wahlala enegunya eliphambili kwimiyalelo yempilo kawonke wonke, kuquka izigunya zokufihla isigqubuthelo kunye nokuvala ishishini. Abanye abalawuli bamazwe balugatya ulawulo lukarhulumente, nto leyo eyakhokelela kumadabi omthetho olawulo oluphezulu ngexesha longxamiseko.

Imfundo: Imfundo ingumsebenzi wesizwe nowasekuhlaleni, kodwa urhulumente uphembelela inkqubo ngemeko zenkxaso-mali (umz., iSihloko kunye nokungabikho mntwana Oshiyekileyo kwimfuno). Ingxoxo emalunga nokubandakanyeka kolawulo lwezifundo, uvavanyo, kunye nokukhetha kwesikolo iyaqhubeka isetyenziswa ekusebenziseni intetho yezobupolitika.

Isiphelo

Ukuqonda amagunya karhulumente wesizwe kubalulekile ekuqondeni ubuntsonkotha bokulawula kweMelika. Ulwahlulo olukhethekileyo lwamagunya, imiqathango yezomgaqo-siseko, kunye nendima yeNkundla ePhakamileyo konke kufak ’ isandla kwinkqubo esebenzayo eqhubeka iguquka. Ucwangciso lwesizwe, oluboniswayo, nolunamandla emfuza ukucombulula imicimbi yesizwe — irhafu, ezorhwebo, intengiso, ukufuduka, kunye nezinye — ngoxa luthetha ngolongamo lwamazwe kwimicimbi yasekuhlaleni.

Abafundi kufuneka babendakanyeka kwezi ngcamango ukukhuthaza uxabiso olunzulu ngesakhiwo sikarhulumente wase United States. Ngokufunda umGaqo-siseko, imiba yesimo esibonakalayo enjenge . MCulloch v. Maryland[FLT]] [[FLT]] kunye [[FLT] ne-United States] v. Lopez[, kunye nengxoxo yangoku, i-Prosethi ye-RGenesticalism, abanokuqonda kuphela indlela urhulumente worhulumente worhulumente wolu buqu asebenza ngayo kodwa nendlela amandla awo aqhubeka evavanywa ngayo kwaye echaziwe. Impumelelo yeMelika ixhomekeke kumntu oqondayo indlela yokuyila nokuthabatha inxaxheba kwinkqubo yesizwe nokuthelelana phakathi komanyano lwesizwe phakathi komanyano lwesizwe nomanyano lwesizwe.