Ukwazisa Kusebenziso Olukhethiweyo

Isenzo sokukhetha yimfundiso yomgaqo-siseko esetyenziswa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States ekuye kwasetyenziswa ngayo iSigqeba samaLungelo eSigqeba sorhulumente ukuba sifake urhulumente ngokudlula kwi-Siult Procession Claus of the Ineth Amendment. Le nkqubo iqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo asisiseko akhuselwa ekuchasweni ngurhulumente, hayi nje kukuphazanyiswa ngurhulumente. Ngenkulungwane edluleyo, uthotho lwemiba yemibango eqingqiweyo luye lwadibanisa iBhili yamaLungelo kumthetho, ukubuyisela i-American jurisprudence kunye nenkululeko yabemi yemihla ngemihla. Ukuqonda la matyala kucacisa indlela imiqathango yokuqala yabasunguli emandla karhulumente ngoku ekhusela abantu kurhulumente nakumazwe asekuhlaleni kulo lonke uhlanga.

ISinyuso seshumi elinesine somthetho, esagunyaziswa ngo1868, ekuqaleni sasijoliswe ekukhuseleni amakhoboka awayesandul' ukukhululwa kwimithetho karhulumente elawula ucalucalulo. Kodwa ke lo mthetho wawungengowokuba akukho rhulumente “uza kubulala nabani na ophilayo, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efunekayo yomthetho.""""Ngokuzenzekelayo yaba yinqwelo yokwenza uninzi lwamalungelo agunyaziswayo kumazwe. Le nkqubo yayingenzeki; yayifuna ukuba ityala liqululwe yinkundla ephakamileyo, indlela eyaziwayo njengeenzamenziswano ekhethekileyo. Ngokungafaniyo nenkqubo epheleleyo yokuquluntwa kwamalungelo, eyayizakusebenzisa lonke iBhili lokusebenza kwemiqatha lamalungelo kumazwe kwelinye icala, ukuqulungela inkundla engakhethiyo ukufikelela amalungelo ayo ekucingelweni kwawo“ ukulawulwa kwenkululeko yenkululeko." Indlela eyayayilwa yinkululeko elungele ukusetyenziswa yimiqatha yenkululeko nemithetho yomthetho.

Isiseko Sokuqala: IGotlow v. New York noMphetho Wokuqala

Gitlow v. New York (1925)

Ngaphambi ko 1925, iBhili yamaLungelo yaqondwa njengemiqathango yomthetho wobugqwirha kuphela. Ityala Getlow v. New York latshintsha elo tyala. Benjamin Gitlow, umxhasi wezobupolitiki, wagwetywa phantsi komthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho waseNew York wolwaphulo-mthetho okhuthaza ukubhukuqwa kukarhulumente ngamandla. Gitlow waphikisa ukuba umthetho waphule uLawulo lwakhe lokuqala lwamahla ekhutshweni. Inkundla ePhakamileyo, kwisigqibo esingu 7-2, ixhasa ukuthembeka kwakhe kwiimfanelo kodwa, ngokubalulekileyo, ivakalisa umgaqo omtsha: “Ngoko sisenokuthi sicingela ukuba inkululeko yokuthetha kunye nokukhuselwa komsebenzi wokuqala, ukhuselwe ngokukhuselwa koMphetho-Geqesho-o-o-omblyn phakathi kwe-ombly) phakathi kwemielwayolongo yobuqu kunye namalungelo afanele ukuhlazinziswa ngumthetho.

Le ngcamango ``````Idirect'''' yabe iyisiseko sayo yonke imfundiso ekhethayo. Inkundla ayizange iluguqule ngokuthe ngqo ulweyiseko lukaGitlow, kodwa yavula ucango lweengxaki zamva. Intsingiselo ayinakuchazwa ngaphezulu: okwesihlandlo sokuqala, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaqonda ukuba igalelo lokuKhululisa loMqululo olukhululekileyo lisetyenziswa kwimithetho yorhulumente. Le mizekelo yamisela iqonga leliza lamatyala okuququzelela amashumi eminyaka alandelayo. Inkundla yazisa kwakhona “utyekelo olungalunganga” lokuvavanyaza, kamva kuthathelwa indawo yimilinganiselo engakumbi yokukhusela ukuthetha, kodwa umgaqo oqulukileyo wanyamezela.

Kufuphi noV. Minnesota (1931)

Kungekudala emva kweGitlow, iNkundla yaquka inkululeko yokucofa. Near v. Minnesota, iNkundla yawisa umthetho karhulumente owavumela ukuvalwa kwangaphambili kwamaphephandaba agqalwa “ngobubi, elihlazo, kunye nehlazo." Isigqibo sathi ukhutshelo lokuhlaziywa koMphetho wokuqala lusebenza kumazwe ukudlula kuMphetho-Mdathiso-mandla weshumi elinesine, uthintela amagosa karhulumente ekucutheni iimpapasho ngaphambili. Le meko yaqinisekisa ukuba inkululeko ekhuselwe ngenkqubo efanelekileyo ibandakanya isini esingundoqo somvo esikhululekileyo, ukhuseleko olubalulekileyo lokuphendula kolawulo lwedemokhrasi.

Isenzo Sezaphuli - mthetho Nemvukelo YeNkundla YaseWarren

Owona mlinganiselo uphawulekayo wokwanda kokuzibandakanya okukhethiweyo kwenzeka ebudeni beminyaka yee-1960 phantsi kweJaji enkulu u-Earl Warren. Inkundla yaseWarren ilungelelaniswe ngomgaqo-nkqubo wolwaphulo-mthetho wasebenzisa phantse zonke izikhuseli zeBhili yamaLungelo kwiinkundla zikarhulumente nakumthetho wokugcinwa komthetho, ngokusisiseko utshintshwa komlinganiselo phakathi kwegunya likarhulumente namalungelo omntu ngamnye. Ezi zigqibo zavelisa ezinye zezidume kakhulu kumthetho-siseko waseMelika.

IMap v. Ohio (1961): UMthetho OyiExclion Applies to United States

.App v.O. wathetha ngokhuseleko loMmiselo wesi-5 wokuphanda nokuxhuzula okungekho ngqiqweni. Dollree Map wagwetywa ngokuba nezinto ezingcolileyo emva kokuba amapolisa engene ekhayeni lakhe ngaphandle kwemvume esemthethweni. INkundla Ephakamileyo yaziguqula isiqinisekiso sakhe, ibambe ukuba ubungqina obufunyanwa ngokuchasene noMmiselo weSihlaziyo wesine abunakusetyenziswa ekuwisweni kwezomthetho wezolwaphulo-mthetho. Inkundla yenkundla yezomthetho iquka umthetho wokususa ityala nesakhelo i-ethe qala ngoku kuphela, i-ikhombeka ka-X. Isigqibo savakalisa ukuba ilungelo lokufumana uphando olungekho ngqiqweni lungenanjongo ukuba bungavunywa ngokungekho mthethweni. Esi sigqibo asivunywangagunyazwanga sigunyaziswayo ngoku, kwaye amapolisa azimelengagunyaziswanga ngokomthetho, ngokusetyenziswa ngokusetyenziswa ngokusetyenziswa ngokungeyo.

UGideon (1963): Ilungelo Lokucebisa

Mhlawumbi akukho meko ibonisa kakuhle isithembiso sobugqwirha sokuzibandakanya ngokukhetha kune Gideon v. Wainwright . UClarence Earl Gideon wayengummangalelwa olihlwempu otyholwe ngokuqhekeza iholo yequ laseFlorida. Akanakukwazi ukuhlawula igqwetha kwaye acele ukuba inkundla imisele enye, kodwa iFlorida kuphela yanikela isiluleko kumatyala amakhulu. UGidiyon umele ngokwakhe waze wabekwa ityala. Inkundla ephakamileyo yathi inyanise ukuba iSithandathu Isinyuko seSiphendulo sinelungelo elingundoqo lokusebenzisa amaphondo adlula kwiGademith Amend. Inkundla iqikele ukuba ityala elilungileyo lingenabulungisa ngaphandle kwegqwetha abangakwazi ukuhlawula omnye. “iwodwa uGidiyo owenziwayo ulwaphulo-mthetho, kodwa umele ukuvavanywa ngokusesikweni kwamanye amazwe, kodwa kubhalwe kwityala likaGidiyonthe .

Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Uku-iphatika kweCustodial kunye no-Uself [“Uhlanganiso, NW]

uMenda v.Arizona yaquka ukhuseleko loMphetho-mda wesihlanu nxamnye nolwahlulo-mthetho lwaseburhulumenteni. INkundle ibambe ukuba iingxelo ezenziwa ngumkrobi ngexesha lokuncinwa kwegunya azinakuthintelwa ngaphandle kokuba amapolisa aqala azise ukukrokrelelwa ngamalungelo okungathethiyo, ukuba nantoni na ethethwayo isenokusetyenziswa nxamnye nabo, kwaye ilungelo lokusebenza kwigqwetha (hnj) ukuba akanakukwazi ukuhlawula omnye. Inkundla yayifuna ukuba akrokrexele ngokwazi nangeelelwano olu lungelo. Le sigqibo, nangona kucetyiswa, kujoliswe ukulingana kokungalungeleni phakathi kwemeko kunye nokuncinwa kwabantu ngabanye. Inkcaso siquka ukufikelela kwe-Frempdmist ukukhusela okuzinzileyo okuthe ukubonakalisa ukuba kumele i-Merika. Ngoku kumele ukuba inxalenye yendlela yokusebenza yemithetho esetyenziswa kwimo yemithetho yeMir.

UDuncan . Louisiana (1968): Ilungelo Lokuvavanywa Kwetyala KuJury

ILouisiana Ephakamileyo yakhanyela ummangalelwa wetyala labachopheli-tyala ogwetyiweyo ogwetywa iminyaka emibini entolongweni, isithi ityala labachopheli-tyala lalingafunekanga kwiinkundla zetyala lamanye amazwe ngenxa yetyala elingangeni kumatyala angomakathanga. Duncan v. Louisiana, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S.IInkundla ePhakamileyo yangqina ukuba iSindululo seSithandathu sokuHlawulo sikwityala elingokwabethwalwa kwetyala lolwaphulo-mthetho olunzulu siyimfuneko kwaye sisebenza kumazwe. Inkundla yetyala ichaza ukuba ityala eligweba likhusela ityala elilonakalisayo okanye eligqwesileyo, okanye eligwebayo, okanye eligwebi eligwebayo. Eli tyala lakwenza kwacaca ukuba liqule phantsi kwetyala eliqhelekileyo phantsi kwetyala lasekhohlo.

Ukungxengxezwa Ngaphandle Kwendlela Yolwaphulo - mthetho: Izihlomelo Zale Mihla

Ukuqukunjelwa kweNkundla yaseWarren akuphelelanga. Izigwebo ezalandelayo zasebenzisa iSihlaziyo sesibini, iinxalenye zoMphetho-mda wesiXhosa, nezinye izikhuseli kumazwe, zibonisa ukuba le mfundiso iyaqhubeka iguquka.

IGama eliQuml

Kangangamashumi eminyaka, urhulumente kunye norhulumente wasekuhlaleni wamisela imithetho yolawulo lwemipu ngaphandle kokuxhalabela ukuhlaziywa kweSibini, okungazange kuququzelelwe. Umdla weMcDonald v. Chicago, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi ilungelo leSibini lokuLandlisa umpuzelo loMpul ’ umpu libalulekile kwaye lisebenza ekulawuleni kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni. Inkundla ixhomekeke kwimimiselo efanayo ye-Classiastem Claus efake amanye amalungelo, nangona yayikwayijonga kwakhona ilungelo okanye indlela ka-Immouni Claus ka-Claus ingena phantsi kwesandla. McDonal Devis ingud ukuval ukuval uvalwa kwesandla sakhe somdumbini wemipul-oName, kwaye ifuna imithetho yasekuhlaleni ukuba ivumelane nomthetho weSihlalo seSithi seSihlalo, Vridi e-Gridi ekwa. Esithe `illee.

Timbs . Indiana (209): Iindyed Fine

Ityala eliphambili lakutshanje lingu Timbs v. I-Indiana, eyayithi uthintelo lweNkqutyana yokuLandliswa kweminxeba egqithisileyo luyasebenza kumazwe. Eli tyala libandakanya indoda eyathi iRover Land Rover yabanjwa emva kokuba igwetywe ngokuthengisa iziyobisi ezingamakhulu ambalwa eerandi. Inkundla yagqiba kwelokuba ukhuseleko lwe-Andex Confectionment nxamnye nentengiso egqithisileyo luqukiwe nge-IClasting Procesment Claus. Isigqibo saqinisekisa umgaqo wokuba uBhili we-RRRRRCS ubeke imiqathango yamalungelo karhulumente ukuba urhulumente abeke izala izalasohlwayo ezingamashumi amabini eenjiweyo kunye neempahla.

Ukubaluleka Kwale Miqathango Yophawu

Impembelelo edibeneyo yokuququzelela amatyala akhethiweyo imbi kakhulu. Bayiguqule iBhili yamaLungelo ukusuka kwimiqathango karhulumente karhulumente ngokuba ngumthetho wesizwe wonke wenkululeko kwiphondo ngalinye nakummandla ngamnye. Nazi iindawo eziliqela ezingundoqo zokubaluleka:

  • Ukumanyana kwamalungelo asisiseko: ngoku amaMelika anandipha ngokuyintloko ukhuseleko olungundoqo olufanayo nolungokomGaqo-siseko kungakhathaliseki ukuba yeliphi ilizwe ahlala kulo. Ummi kwelinye ilizwe akanakukhanyelwa ityala labachopheli-tyala, igqwetha, okanye ilungelo lokuhlala athule ngendlela engamkelekiyo kwelinye ilizwe.
  • Amandla abantu ngabanye: Abantu bangavavanya imithetho nezenzo zikarhulumente enkundleni besebenzisa iingxelo ezifanayo zomGaqo-siseko ezazifumaneka nxamnye norhulumente wezwe. Oku kuye kwanika ugunyaziso lwamalungelo abantu, ukusuka kwihambo engafanelekanga yamapolisa ukuya kuma ngokukhululekileyo.
  • IFederalism kunye noBukhosi beSizwe: Ulwandiso lohlobo lweziqumrhu ezizizo ezihlonelwayo zombuso ngeli xesha zisabeka imigangatho esisiseko yesizwe. Amazwe ahlala eyimizi - mveliso yedemokhrasi, kodwa kufuneka asebenze kwisiseko senkululeko esisiseko. Le mfundiso ngoko ibangela umlinganiselo phakathi kokulingana nokwahluka.
  • Utshintsho lobulungisa bezaphuli-mthetho: Izigqibo zeNkundla yaseWarren zolwaphulo-mthetho.] Ingakumbi uGidion, Miranda, kunye noMapp(_____wayiphelisa ingozi yokukholisa okuphosakeleyo nokusetyenziswa kakubi kwamandla amapolisa. Ii-ofisi zoluntu, ulawulo lwe-partical luye lwaba ngundoqo kwinkqubo yezobulungisa.
  • Impikiswano Eqhubekayo: Ukukhetha okuqulethweyo kuhlala kungumbandela wengxoxo yophando lolwazi neyomthetho. Abanye abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi le mfundiso ivumele ijaji yesizwe ukuba itshintshele kulawulo olusemthethweni lwenkqubo karhulumente, lo gama abaxhasi bephikisa ukuba ikhusela isiseko senkululeko esingapheleliyo. Indlela yokudibanisa i-(enokuba ikho kukwiMsebenziswa okanye kumalungelo okanye i-Immunitunian iyaqhubeka ikhuphiswana, njengoko kujongwa kwiimbono ezahlukeneyo kwi McDonald.

La matyala aphawulekayo akwamisele imigaqo ebalulekileyo engokwasemthethweni yokunyanzeliswa komthetho, iinkqubo zomthetho, kunye nokubekwa ityala korhulumente. Umzekelo, umthetho wokususwa komthetho weMap uthintela ukuphengululwa okungekho mthethweni; ilungelo lokucebisa uGidiyon liqinisekisa ukuvavanywa ngokufanelekileyo; iMiranda iyazikhusela kwiimvavanyo ezinyanzelwayo; kwaye ilungelo lokugweba elisuka kuDuncan likhuthaza ukuba kubekho inxaxheba ekuhleni nokuvelela inkqubo yezobulungisa.

Isiphelo

Ibali lokukhetha ukuqukumbelana ngokubalulekileyo komthetho-siseko waseMerika. Ukususela ngoqikelelo lukaGitlow lokungathembani ngowe-1975, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ngokuthe ngcembe yasebenzisa inkoliso yeBhili yamaLungelo kumazwe, ingavumi ukuba kusetyenziswe ngokupheleleyo ulwamkelo lwezobungangamsha, ityala elijongene nokungalingani okuphambili. Amatyala abalulekileyo axutyushwa apha. Ngokubhekiselele apha, kufutshane, iMap, uGidiyop, uGidiyon, uDionko, McDonald, neTimbs [“illustaltageys, kunye ne-illettusssssssssss, ichaza ngokupheleleyo indlela umGeneral alungele ngayo amalungelo omntu ngamnye akhuseleke kakhulu kwimeko ezingxakeko: imo yemeko zikarhulumente. Ngokunjalo, uqikelelo olu didi lweziko lokulawulayongazelelweyonga, umgaqo oluqhelekileyo lwesizwe, olufanelekileyo olufanelekileyo olufanelekileyo lokulawulayokusetyenziswayo olufanelekileyo lungancanciphiweyo

Ukufunda okungakumbi, bona [[FLT: 0] Gitlow v. New York (Oyez), Mapp v. Ohio (Oyez), [[FLT:] [[FLT]]] Gideon v. Wainw (Cell LII), [[FLT:]]], Marda. Arizona (ez)[FLT:], kunye [[FLT], [oct:], kunye [okanye [okanye]] .vCCCCLDI [F]]