UHlaliso lweshumi leSigqibo kuMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States luye lwafana nenye yezona ntsika zesiseko kodwa ezisoloko zingahoywa. Amazwi alula alo magama . Ukugcinwa kwawo kuwo onke amagunya angagunyaziswanga kurhulumente worhulumente okanye awalelweyo, kwaye angagunyaziswanga ngawo.

Imvelaphi Yembali: Ithabathela Kwimiba Yomthetho Ukuya KwiBhili Yamalungelo

UHlaziyo lweshumi leSigqibo aluzange luphumele ekungabini namsebenzi. Laliyincopho yeengxoxo ezinzulu phakathi kwabaququzeleli bomkhosi kunye nabaLawuli-Anti-Fedalist ngexesha lokwenziwa kwemiGaqo-siseko. Phantsi kweMiqathango yoMgaqo-siseko, urhulumente wesizwe wayebuthathaka ngabom, enegunya elininzi lokuphumla kumazwe. Eli lungiselelo labonakala lingasebenzi, likhokelela kwiConvention yezomGaqo-siseko ka1787. UmGaqo-siseko omtsha wanika urhulumente wesizwe amandla akhethekileyo, akhankanyiweyo (afana nokulawula ushishino lwezo mali, ukudiza imali, nokubhengeza imfazwe, kodwa abagxeki besoyithanda ukunga oko kuhambele ngokwaneleyo kwigunya lorhulumente.

Abachasi be-Federalist bafuna irekhodi yamalungelo okukhusela ulawulo lukarhulumente nenkululeko yabantu. UmGaqo-siseko wokuqala, baphikisa ngelithi, wawunokutolikwa ukuvumela urhulumente wesizwe ukuba afumane naliphi na igunya elingakhatywanga ngalo. Ekuphenduleni, uJames Madison warhuma uthotho lweziphene, kuquka oko kwaba yishumi elineshumi. Utshintsho lwagunyaziswa ngoDisemba 15, 1791, njengenxalenye yeBhili yamaLungelo. Umbhalo walo ufundeka ngoluthi: “Amagunya awagunyaziswanga eUnited States nguMgaqo-siseko, okanye awalelwanga nguwo eUnited States, agcinelwa eUnited States, okanye agcinelwe ngabantu ngokulandelelanayo. Olu lwimi luqinisekisa ngokucacileyo umgaqo wegunya lesizwe nelo.

Ukutshona okunzulu kwiingxoxo zokwahlula, jonga i umGaqo-siseko wesizwe weZiko lohlalutyo lweSihlaziyo seshumi .

Umbhalo nentsingiselo: Yintoni kanye kanye intsingiselo "Egciniweyo"

UHlaliso lweSihlaziyo seshumi elinambini ludla ngokuchazwa “njengobuTshaba” ngenxa yokuba aluniki gunya litsha; luphinda nje isakhiwo esisele siboniswa luludwe lwamagunya orhulumente. Noko ke, intsingiselo yaso ingaphezulu. Isehlo simisela umthetho ongagqibekanga wokuba lonke igunya likarhulumente elingoorhulumente ishiyeke kumazwe okanye kubantu. Lo mgaqo, owaziwa ngokuba ngurhulumente, udala inkqubo elawulayo apho urhulumente nelorhulumente zinezigaba ezizimeleyo zegunya.

Isitshixo sokuqonda uMbekelo weshumi elinesiThathu kukuqonda ukuba ummiselo wawo wamandla awuphelelanga. ISupremacy Claus (uGawulayo VI, uClaus 2) iqinisekisa ukuba imithetho karhulumente eyenziwe i-pulsete kuMgaqo-siseko ingaphezulu kwimithetho engqubanayo. Ngalo ndlela uMphetho-Mpanzi weshumi elinesithoba usebenza njengomda kumandla karhulumente: iBhunga lingenza kuphela kumandla alo adwelisweyo, kwaye nawuphi na umthetho wesizwe ongaphezulu kuwo awenziwa phantsi kwemithetho yezo mithetho. Lo mandla aye avavanywa ngokuphindaphindiwe kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo.

  • Amandla anamanani adweliswe kakhulu kwinqaku I, Icandelo 8 lomGaqo-siseko.
  • [[UMTHETHO:0] Amandla agciniweyo aquka imicimbi yolawulo lwasekuhlaleni olunjengemfundo, amandla amapolisa, ukusetyenziswa komhlaba, kunye norhwebo lwezorhwebo lwangaphakathi.
  • Amandla athenjiweyo ukuquka ukungena kwizivumelwano, ukubopha imali, okanye ukonakalisa izivumelwano.

Ibinzana elithi “okanye kubantu” ligxininisa ukuba ulawulo luxhomekeke kubemi, kwaye kwanoorhulumente bamazwe banyanzelwa ngamalungelo abantu agciniweyo. Eli binzana liye lasetyenziswa kwiingxoxo zale mihla eziphathelele ukuba wedwa, amalungelo emipu, kunye nenkululeko engathintelwanga.

Umanyano noBukhosi: Ugcino-lwazi lweSizwe

UHlaziyo lweSiphengululo seshumi elinamashumi amahlanu ludla ngokubizwa ngokuba “kukutshintshwa kolawulo lobunyani” kuba lumisela ukwahlulwa kwegunya phakathi korhulumente wesizwe namazwe. UMadison wabhekisela kweli lungiselelo “njengerepublic eyayamekileyo” kuMbutho woLawulo lukaNo. 51, apho urhulumente wengingqi elawulayo elinganiselweyo ngexesha ulawulo lolawulo lorhulumente olulawula amagunya aqhelekileyo. Olu lawulo lumabini luneempembelelo ezininzi eziluncedo:

  • iirabhoratori zobupolitiki: Amazwe angalinga iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokuzama imiba enjengezonyango, imfundo, kunye nomgaqo wemeko- bume, ukubonelela ngogcino-lwazi kunye nemizekelo yenkqubo yesizwe.
  • iiChecks kumandla orhulumente: Ama-United States angavavanya imithetho karhulumente enkundleni, kwaye amagosa anyuliweyo kumgangatho karhulumente angaxhathisa imiyalelo karhulumente akholelwa ukuba igqithe imida yomGaqo-siseko.
  • Ukhuseleko lwamaxabiso asekuhlaleni: amanani ahlukeneyo kwilizwekazi elikhulu kufuneka ulawulo olubonisa amasiko engingqi, uqoqosho, kunye nezinto eziphambili, into ekwindlela yomgangatho omnye yesixokelelwano sezwe elingurhulumente ayinako ukunikezela ngamaxesha onke.

Noko ke, umlinganiselo uye watshintsha ekuhambeni kwexesha. Ixesha leNew Deal labona ukwanda kolawulo lukarhulumente phantsi kweChwethezo lukaClaus, kwaye umbutho wamalungelo oluntu wasebenzisa igunya lorhulumente ukuphelisa imithetho karhulumente eyakhuthaza ucalucalulo lobuhlanga. Ezi ziganeko zembali zaphakamisa imibuzo malunga nokuba lingakanani igunya eligciniweyo kumarhulumente.

Iingcaciso zeNkundla Ephakamileyo Ezingundoqo

INkundla ePhakamileyo iphumeze indima ephambili ekuchazeni imida yoMphetho-mda weshumi. Ngeli xesha amatyala angaphambili anjengo Mcloch v. Maryland (1819) esungulwe ubungangamsha besizwe, izigqibo eziye kamva zagxininisa ulawulo lorhulumente. Ngelilandelayo zezona zinempembelelo.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Kweli tyala libalulekileyo, iNkundla yathi iNkundla yayithe iLawula amandla okuseka ibhanki yesizwe, nokuba uMaryland wayengenakuyihlawula loo bhanki ngenxa yokuba “amandla erhafu abandakanya amandla okutshabalalisa.” IJaji enkulu uJohn Marshall yachaza igunya elibanzi likarhulumente phantsi kwe-Imfuno ne-Seaty Claus, kodwa uLawulo lweshumi elinambini lokuLandlo-Mthethweni lwalungeyoyona nto iphambili. Endaweni yoko, ityala lamisela isigaba semilo yezonontlalo-siseko ngokumisela umgaqo wokuba umthetho karhulumente uphakathi xa usungulwa kwigunya lomgaqo-siseko.

EUnited States v. Lopez (1995)

Kangangamashumi eminyaka, iNkundla yamkelekile kwiNkundla phantsi kwe-Chommerce Claus. Lopez, ngoko ke, iNkundla yabetha phantsi uMthetho weGun-Free School Counts ka 1990, ilawula ukuba ukuba ukuba nesixhobo sokudubula kufuphi nesikolo sasingenabudlelane norhwebo lwezorhwebo. Esi sigqibo saphawula ukuvusemgangathweni weSiphengululo seshumi, simisela amandla alawulayo kwaye siqinisekisa ukuba igunya likwimicimbi yolwaphulo-mthetho yasekuhlaleni. Oyez iphepha letyala le . v. Lopez[FLT][FLD:4] [FLT]]

Shicilelaz v. United States (1997)

Ku Shicilelaz, iNkundla yathi urhulumente wengingqi akanakuyalela ukuba amagosa omthetho karhulumente aqhube imvelaphi phantsi koMthetho wokhuselo lwe-Brady Handgun. Uluvo luka-Scalia lwagxininisa ukuba uLawulo lweSindululo seshumi leSigunya lungamkelwa yimithetho ukusuka ku-“myaleli” amagosa aphetheyo ukuzalisekisa iinkqubo zikarhulumente. Le mithetho igxininisa umgaqo wolawulo oluphindiweyo: urhulumente kufuneka asebenzise imithetho yakhe okanye agunyazise i-omatilo-o-mthetho, kodwa akanakukwazi ukusebenzisana abasebenzi be-Rhulumente.

New York v. United States (1992)

Phambi Printz, iNkundla yawisa umthetho karhulumente ofunekayo ukuba “athathe isiqu” kwinkunkuma yemitha yeathom ephantsi ukuba ayilawuli ukulahlwa kwayo. INew York v. United States, iNkundla yawisa umthetho wokuba iNkundla ayinakuyalela nje ukuba imigaqo yowiso-mthetho iphumeze iinjongo zikarhulumente. Isigqibo esahlulweyo phakathi kwezizathu zomthetho ezigunyaziso (umz., ukuxhasa ngemiqathango) kunye nokungagunyazinziswa okanye umyalelo.

IFederation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (202)

ISigunyaziso seNkundla yaMandla sasinda njengerhafu, kodwa iNkundla yasikelwe umda amandla karhulumente okumisela iMedicaid inkxaso-mali yolwandiso lwe-ACA's Medicaid. IJaji enkulu uRoberts yabhala ukuba isongela ukukhupha yonke inkxaso yemali ekhoyo yeMedicaid ngaphandle kokuba irekhodis-yawuphula umHlaniso weSihlangu seshumi ngenxa yokuba yawela umgca ukusuka “kukhuthaza” ukuya ku“ kwiNgqungquthela.” Eli tyala lihlala lingumbekiselwa phambili kwimpikiswano yale mihla.

Amandla Agciniweyo Empindweni: Usetyenziso Lomthetho

ISindululo seshumi samagunya sivumela amazwe ukuba aphendule imibandela efuna ukuba ilungelelane nemimandla.

Imfundo

Imfundo ingumsebenzi ophambili wezwe nowasekuhlaleni. Urhulumente ngamnye umisela eyakhe imigangatho yohlelo lokufundisa, iindlela zokuxhasa iimpahla, iimfuno zokufundisa, kunye noorhulumente abavavanya. Olu tshintsho lukhokelele kwiziphumo zemfundo ezahlukeneyo. Umzekelo, amatyala anjenge Massachusetts ne New Jersey anezikolo eziqhuba phambili kakhulu, ngelixa ezinye zizama ukumelana ngaphantsi kwezithuba eziphunyeziweyo neziphumezayo. Umsebenzi worhulumente, ngenkqubo enjengoNo Child Lend Bend ne-All Sveevect, ulinganiselwe ekunikezeleni imali kunye nokubeka iinjongo ezibanzi.

Impilo

Amazwe anegunya elibalulekileyo lokunyamekela impilo kwimida yawo. Alawula i-inshorensi, iingcali zezezamayeza, kwaye asebenzisa iMedicaid phantsi kolwalathiso lukarhulumente. I-Affordible Care Act ivumela amazwe ukwandisa iMedicaid, kwaye ngokonyaka wama-2024, amazwe alishumi aye akhetha ukungawandisi umlinganiselo othe ngqo wamandla awo agciniweyo. Ngaphezu koko, amaxwebhu anjengeKhalifoniya neNew York aye asebenzisa izindululo zawo siqu kunye nezicwangciso zikawonke wonke, ngoxa amanye aye akhetha ukwandisa iMediaid, kwaye afumana iindleko eziphantsi.

Ukubhaliswa KwamaCannabis Ngomthetho

Mhlawumbi owona mzekelo ucacileyo wamagunya abekelwe inxaxheba kukulwa nomya. Nangona uthintelo lwesizwe phantsi koMthetho we-Substances Elawulayo, ngaphezu kwamazwe angamashumi amabini aye agunyazisa ngokusemthethweni i-cannabis ukuze asetyenziswe kwezonyango okanye ngokuzonwabisa. Ngokuyintloko urhulumente wesizwe uye wakhetha ukunganyanzeli umthetho karhulumente kuloo mazwana, ngokuphathelele umgaqo wolawulo olubini. Lo msebenzi wemithetho karhulumente ubonakalisa indima yeSiphekephekethi se-Tenth Demendment njengekhatha lokuchasene neemfuno zomthetho zombuso ezimgangatho-zo zonyango, qhawe de iBhunga lomthetho lisebenze ukusombulula i-Rhulumente.

Umgaqo-nkqubo wokusingqongileyo

Amazwe ebesoloko ekhokela kwinkqubo yokusingqongileyo. Ngokomzekelo, imilinganiselo engqongqo yezithuthi ezikhupha umbane yeKhalifoniya iye yasetyenziswa ngamanye amazwe kwaye iye yanyanzelela abenzi beenqwelo-mafutha ukuba benze iinqwelo-mafutha ezicocekileyo kulo lonke ilizwe. UMthetho we-Computer Clean Air uvumela amazwe ukuba amisele imilinganiselo yawo emva kokufumana umenzi-mali kwi-EPA. Ngokufanayo, amaziko aye avelisa imiyalelo ehlaziyekileyo yamandla, ikharbon cristicing, kunye neenkqubo zokulondolozwa kwamanzi ezingaphantsi kwamandla awo agciniweyo amapolisa ukukhusela impilo nentlalo-ntle.

Iingxaki Nempikiswano

Ukulungelelana kwamandla phakathi kwamazwe norhulumente wesizwe kuseyenye yezona mbambano zidala ingxabano kwezobupolitika zaseMerika.

ISebe leMicimbi yeNkcubeko neNkxaso

Njengoko kuphawuliwe, ulwando lwe-MEdicaid lwadala indawo ebanzi. Amanye amatyala aphikisa ngelithi urhulumente worhulumente wayewanyanzelela ukuba andise intlawulo exabisa imali eninzi. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi-NFIB v. Sebelius walinganisela loo ngcinezelo, kodwa idabi liyaqhubeka. Amazwe aye acel'eleza imiyalelo karhulumente ekwandiseni ukuthintela ukumitha nokuqhomfa, ekhankanya i-Hentith Amendution.

Ulawulo lwemipu

Emva kokudubula okukhulu, iKhomishini yeBpartisan Safeter Community Act yowama-2022, eyayiquka ukuxilonga okungasemva kwabathengi abangaphantsi kwe-21 kunye nenkxaso-mali ye- “iflegi ebomvu”. Amazwe amaninzi aye amangalela, athi umthetho uchasene namandla awo agciniweyo ukulawula imipu. Okwangoku, amaziko aye amisela imithetho eyahlukileyo yemipu e-Calsaves, ukusuka ekutheni i-okrustra eqinileyo e-New York/uncindiliza isithuba somthetho wokhetho lwasekuhlaleni.

Impilo yoluntu

Le ngxaki yavavanywa ngendlela engazange ibonwe ngaphambili. Urhulumente wasekuhlaleni wakhupha ukhokelo waza wasasaza imichiza yokugoma, kodwa urhulumente wenza izigqibo ezininzi ngokuphathelele ukuvalwa kwemiqathango, ukuvalwa kwesigqubuthelo, nokuvalwa kweshishini. Amanye amatyala aphikisa ngelithi imiyalelo karhulumente yokuba abaqeshi banikwe umsitho wesitofu yaphula umthetho weSihlangu seshumi. Imithetho evavanya umgangatho wexesha lika-OSHANA waphumelela ngokwenxalenye ngenxa yokuba iinkundla zafumanise ukuba urhulumente uqeqeshiwe uqeshiwe kwimimandla ekwayakhe yaya kumazwe.

Ukuqhomfa Emva Kwezibhedlele

Dobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [202], iNkundla Ephakamileyo ilawula Roe v. Wade kwaye wabambelela ekubeni uMgaqo-siseko awulichazi ilungelo lokuqhomfa. Isigqibo sibuyiselwe kumazwe, ngoku anegunya elipheleleyo lokulawula okanye ukukhusela ukuqhomfa. Oku kumele ukubuyiselwa kwemigaqo yeshumi: urhulumente worhulumente akasasebenzisi gunya phezu kokuqhomfa, ushiya urhulumente ngamnye egqibele ngokusekelwe kwimithetho yakhe nakumaxabiso. Isiphumo sikukunyuswa okukhawulezileyo kwamanye amazwe.

Isiphelo: Ukuthotyelwa Ngokungapheliyo KoMthetho Weshumi Ohlaziyiweyo

ISihlaziyi seshumi leSiphendulo asingomfanekiso wembali. Lilungiselelo eliphilayo lomgaqo-siseko eliqhubeka libumba ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente worhulumente kunye namazwe. Njengoko iingxoxo ngolawulo lwempilo, umgaqo wemekobume, amalungelo emipu, kunye nenkqubo yentlalo, ukubuyiselwa komgaqo-nkqubo kunika isiseko sokulungelelanisa ukuhambelana kwesizwe nokuzimela ngokwasekuhlaleni. Ngoxa ukutolikwa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo kuye kwaguquka . /3531,31,31 Umgaqo ongundoqo uhleli: urhulumente ungomnye wamagunya alinganiselwe, adweliswe, kwaye lonke elinye igunya lihlala kumaphondo okanye abantu.

Ukuqonda uHlaziyo lweshumi leSigqibo kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofuna ukufikelela ulawulo lwaseMelika. Kusikhumbuza ukuba uMgaqo-siseko awuniki urhulumente wesizwe amandla aqhelekileyo amapolisa, kwaye ukuba urhulumente akangomahlelo olawulo eWashington. Ziziquququ zolawulo noorhulumente bazo, imigaqo-siseko, kunye nemithetho. Ukuba uxhasa isenzo sikarhulumente sokutshintsha imozulu okanye ukhusela uvavanyo lwenkqubo yeziyobisi, uMphengululo weshumi leSigunya unika amagama asemthethweni abangela loo ngxoxo. [[FLT:][0] ukuqulunqhinga lolwazi lwe-Progmentation Institute e-Henth Dempleterment kwaye uhlola ityala lomthetho [FLT:]