Ukwazisa: Ukuzalwa Kwenkululeko YaseMerika

IBhili yamaLungelo, equka ukutshintshwa koMgaqo-siseko wokuqala oweshumi eUnited States, ime njengentsika esisiseko yedemokhrasi yaseMerika. I-Ratimente yaqiniswa ngoDisemba 15, 1791, ezi zindululo zazingezozizinto ezicingwayo kodwa zaziyizo kodwa zaziyindawo yokukhusela ngabom ukuphendula impikiswano enkulu yezopolitiko. Ukukhusela iNguquko, ukubhalisa umGaqo-siseko ngo1787-88, isithembiso sokuba uJames Mandela, ekuqaleni, ekungakholelwangaqinisekiyo, ekugqibeleni, iziphumo ezicacileyo zoluhlu olunzulu lorhulumente welizwe osandul'ukucetyikiselwayo zinokuba nomthetho othe ngqo, ukusetyenziswa kwalo, ukuchaza oku kunika intengo yeNguquko.

Imbali: Kwakutheni Ukuze Kubekho Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo Abantu?

Ukungabikho kwerethi yamalungelo kumGaqo-siseko wokuqala yayiyindawo enkulu yokuphikisana kwiNdibano yePhiladelphia. Abameli abaninzi babekholelwa ukuba uludwe lwamalungelo athile lwalungayimfuneko kuba urhulumente wengingqi wayenamagunya alinganiselweyo, anikezelweyo. Noko ke, abagxeki abanjengoGeorge Mason noPatrick Henry baphikisa ngelithi ngaphandle kokhuseleko olucacileyo, urhulumente onamandla onamandla angangenelela ngokulula kwinkululeko efana nokuthetha, ukushicilela, kunye nonqulo. Ukunyanzelela amalungelo kwaba yingxubeko ekhuthazayo ngexesha lengxoxo yokwakhetha, ingakumbi kumaphondo anjengeVirginia, New York, kunye neMassachusetts.

James Madison, ekuqaleni wachasa le ngcamango, ekugqibeleni waxhasa ulungiso kwiBhunga lokuqala. Wafumana ngamandla kwiBhili yamaNgesi yamaLungelo (1689) kunye neSindululo saMalungelo (1776), kunye nomgaqo-siseko karhulumente. Indlu yabameli yadlula utshintsho lweshumi elinesixhenxe; iBhunga laziqinisa zabalishumi elinesibini. Ezilishumi zagunyaziswa ngumazwe, kunye nomva wesibini owesibini malunga nolawulo lwengqungquthela (1699) kunye nolawulo lwamalungelo owesibini oluziiAmashumi amabini anesixhenxe anesine. Ngaloo ndlela iBhili yamaLungelo yaba nguvavanyo lokuqala lomgaqo-mGarhente kulawulo lorhulumente olunobumbano negunya lombuso.

UMthetho Wokuqala Ohlaziyiweyo: ICornerstone of American Freedoms

ISihlaziyo Sokuqala mhlawumbi sesona sidumileyo kuwo onke amalungiselelo omGaqo-siseko. Inkululeko yaso emihlanu — i-speech, unqulo, ushicilelo, indibano, kunye nesibongozo — guqulani iinguqu zenkululeko yabemi baseMerika.

Inkululeko Yokuthetha

Inkululeko yokuthetha ikhusela ilungelo lokuvakalisa iimbono, iingcamango, neenkolelo ngaphandle kolawulo lukarhulumente okanye isohlwayo. Eli lungelo aliphelelanga; kudala lisenokwahlula imiqathango enjengesityhidi, ukuxhokonxwa kogonyamelo, ubunyhukunyho, kunye nentelekelelo yenyani. Ityala leNkundla ePhakamileyo njenge Schenkck v. United States [1919] [19] [19]) iseke i-"ngozi ekhoyo", ngelixa Branburg v. [[FLT].[3] i-ignodenti ye-art: [1] i-P] i-conoreactived trans.[5]

Inkululeko Yonqulo

ISigqibo soQala siqulethe amacandelo amabini onqulo: ukumiselwa kuka-Claus ("Chorrenfor akuyi kwenza mthetho malunga nokusekwa konqulo") kunye noMdlalo wamadlalifa ("okanye ukunqanda ukusetyenziswa kwawo ngokukhululekileyo"). Ukumiselwa kuka-Claus kuthintela urhulumente ekunikezeleni ngokusemthethweni okanye ekuxhaseni unqulo oluthile, ngelixa i-Free Session Claus ekhusela amalungelo abantu okuqhelisa ukholo ngaphandle kokungenelela okungadingekile kukarhulumente. Iimeko ezingundoqo ziquka Engelb v. Vital i-1962], eyathi yazihla isikolo-ponsourwell, kunye [[FLT] Vbby [FFFF] [5], ezithi zivumela ngokusondeleyo kulawulo lonqulo oluthile.

Inkululeko Yephephandaba

Umatshini wokushicilela okhululekileyo ubalulekile kwidemokhrasi esebenzayo, esebenza njengendlela yokulinda kwizenzo zikarhulumente. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ikhusele inkululeko yokushicilela ngokuqhubekayo, ilawula kwi-New York Times Co. v. United States (1971] (imeko yePentagon Papers) ephantse ingabikho ngokomthetho. Ukucofa akuzikhusela kuyo yonke imithetho(-libel, ukuhlasela kwe-mgaqo-mgamnqa, kunye nenkxalabo yokhuseleko lwesizwe kusenokusebenza phantse ukuba kuhlale kuhleli.

Ilungelo Lendibano Nesibongozo

"Ilungelo labantu lokuhlanganisana ngoxolo" kunye no"ukubongoza uRhulumente ukuba alungise izikhalazo" zisoloko zisetyenziswa kunye. La malungelo akhusela ukuqhayisa, iintlanganiso, kunye naluphi na uhlobo lwesibheno esikhutshwa ngamaqumrhu kurhulumente. INkundla ibonise ukuba amalungelo entlanganiso asebenza kuwonke wonke njengezitrato, iitrato, nepaki, nangona ixesha elifanelekileyo, indawo, kunye nemiqathango ivumelekile. Umbutho wamalungelo abantu, imizabala, kunye neBlack Lifes Matter zingqina zonke iimfanelo zabo ezisemthethweni.

UMthetho Wesibini Wokwenziwa Komthetho: Ilungelo Lokugcina Nokuthwala Izixhobo

ISindululo sesibini sifundeka ngolu hlobo: "IMilitia elawulwa kakuhle, ekubeni iyimfuneko kukhuseleko loRhulumente okhululekileyo, ilungelo labantu lokugcina nokuphatha Izixhobo, ayinakuphulwa. Ukutolikwa kwayo kuvele ngendlela ephawulekayo ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini.

Imvelaphi Yembali

Isigqibo savela kumthetho oqhelekileyo waseNgilani namasiko aphantsi emikhosi yabemi abaqhelekileyo. Abaqulunqi babesoyika ukuba umkhosi omileyo uzakusetyenziselwa ukuphatha ingqwabalala, ngoko baxhomekeke kwimikhosi yorhulumente ukuze bakhusele. Kwimbali yembali yesibini yaseMelika, uLawulo lweMpandeko lwabonwa ngokuyintloko njengokukhusela ilungelo elihlangeneyo lamazwelo ukugcina ii-adilitiliti. Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo i-Heller yeFiler[[FLT] v.[FLT] [FD] [200] [200] ingumthetho esezantsi elawula ukuba i-jomelm yomntu abe ne-jomelms, imele i-'edentilms kwinkonzo yothuthotho. [2]

Iimpikiswano Zale Mihla

Umlinganiselo wamalungelo emipu uhlala uthanda ukuphikisana. Iinkundla zibambana nemibuzo yemimiselo evumelekileyo `````iiindlela zokukhangela ngasemva'', amaxesha okulinda, ukuvalwa kwemithetho yezixhobo ezithile, ne'flags ebomvu". Iphondo le-New York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen[FLT:] [2022] isigqibo saqinisa ngakumbi umntu ngamnye ekunene ngokufuna ukuba imithetho yemipu ihambelane nezithethe zembali zomthetho yemipu, ibeka amathandabuzo kwimiqathango emininzi yanamhlanje.

Uhlaziyo Lwesithathu: Ukhuseleko Kumajoni Alawulayo

UHlaziyo lwesithathu lukwalela ukubekwa kwekota koxolo kwamajoni nakweyiphi na indlu ngaphandle kwemvume yomniniyo. Olu tshintsho lungaqondakaliyo lwathetha isikhalazo esicacileyo sexesha lemfazwe yendaleko, xa imikhosi yaseBritane yagcinwa kumakhaya abantu ngaphandle kwemvume. Nangona inqabile ukuhlaziywa, iSindululo sesithathu soMphengululo sigxininisa umgaqo wamalungelo empahla yangasese kwaye siye sachazwa njengomthombo wokhuseleko lwezomgaqo-siseko. Umzekelo, [FLT: 0] Engblam v. Carey[FLD:1] (19982], isekeli yesibini yayikholelwa ukuba i-andment ikhusela izilangazelelo zobuqu zabantu emakhayeni abo.

UMthetho Wesine Wokwenziwa Kwezono: Ukukhusela Uphando Nezinto Ezingekho Mthethweni

UHlomelo lwesine lufuna ukuba ukukhangela nokuxhuzula kube sengqiqweni kwaye kusoloko kusekelwe kwisiqinisekiso esixhaswe nokwenzeka. Kukwafuna ukuba kuchazwe indawo efuna ukuphengululwa kwaye izinto ezimele ziphathwe ngokuziintlobo ezithile.

Umgangatho Osengqiqweni

Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ziye zakhupha oko "ukungabi nangqiqo" kuthetha. KAtz v. United States (1967) zivunyiwe ukuba uLawulo lweSine lokuHlaziya lukhusela "abantu, hayi iindawo," ukwazisa ulindelo olusengqiqweni lovavanyo lwemfihlo. [[FLT:]][FLT]][[FLT]][FLT][FLT][6]] [1968] [1968]) ivumela iprojekthi encinane "yenziyo" isekelwe ekukrokrelekrele. Ukwanda kobugcisa kwamanani kuphakamisa imibuzo emitsha: [[FLT] [12]] v (2014]) ifuna umba othe jikelele ukuba amapolisa afune isaziso sokukhangela iseli, ngexesha eliphakathi [FT][6][5][5] i-FTreevention syt syt syt syt syt syt syndolthiopt syst

Imfuneko Engummangaliso Neyahlukileyo

Umthetho ongagqibekanga ngowokuba uphengululo ngaphandle kwemvume lungekho ngqiqweni, luphantsi kweminye echazwe kakuhle. Abaphambukeli baquka imvume, imboniselo ecacileyo, iimeko ezicacileyo, ingxinano zengozi yokufuna ukubamba, kunye nemvume yemoto. Imfuneko yomthetho enyanzelisa ukunyanzeliswa komthetho ukuqinisekisa ukuba kunokwenzeka phambi komantyi ongathathi cala, ukunqanda ukungena ngokungeyo kwizindlu, amaphepha, kunye neziphumo.

IsiHlomelo Sesihlanu: Ukukhusela Abamangalelwayo Nabangakumbi

UMthetho Wesihlanu Wokwenziwa Kwemiboniso unikela intlanganisela yenkuselo ebalulekileyo kubantu abajongene namandla karhulumente.

ISifungo esiPhakamileyo

Ityala elinzulu likarhulumente kufuneka lihlolisiswe liququzelele liququzelela (iqela labemi abagqiba ukuba kunokwenzeka kusini na). Igalelo elizukileyo labachopheli-tyala alizange lisetyenziswe kumaphondo ngoMphetho-mda weshumi elinesine.

I-Jeopardy ephindwe kabini

Ingxelo ephindaphindiweyo yengozi ithintela umntu ukuba agwetywe kabini ngenxa yetyala elinye emva kokugwetywa okanye ukugwetywa. Noko ke, iinkosi ezahlukeneyo (iityala kunye noorhulumente) zingayimangalela into enye ngaphandle kokwaphula ingozi ephindwe kabini.

Uzinyo

Akukho mntu "uzakunyanzeleka nakweliphi na icala lolwaphulo-mthetho ukuba abe lingqina elichasene naye. Olu khuselo, oludla ngokubizwa ngokuba "kukungcelela okwesihlanu," lunwebela kwimibuzo yamapolisa agcina umntwana. Miranda v. Arizona [196] [6] lufuna ukuba abarhanelayo balunyukiswe ngelungelo labo lokuhlala bethulile kwaye beligqwetha `imfuneko ngoku eqinileyo kangangokuba amaMerika amaninzi ayakwazi ukuphinda aphindeze "Amalungelo e-Moranda" kwinkumbulo.

Ilindelekile

I-Baw Process Claus iyamalela urhulumente ekumncisheni nabani na "ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho. Esi siqinisekiso sisebenza ngokwesithethe (iinkqubo zenqwelo-moya) kunye (ukukhusela amalungelo asisiseko afana ne-engasese, umtshato, kunye nolawulo lomzimba). Imfundiso yenkqubo efunekayo encinci efunekayo isetyenziswe ukubetha imithetho engqubana nenkululeko engaphakathi, ukusuka Griswold v. Connecticut[[FT:1] (65) [impatho yokwahlukana) [FL:2].[FGOGeneg]

Uthatha uClaus

Ekugqibeleni, "impahla yobuqu ayizukuthatyathwa ukuze isetyenziswe nguwonke-wonke, ngaphandle kwembuyiselo. Eli gunya liphezulu lifuna urhulumente ukuba ahlawule ixabiso lokuthengisa ngokufanelekileyo xa ethatha umhlaba ngokwendlela, izikolo, okanye ezinye iprojekthi zikawonke-wonke. I-Controverses zivela phezu koko kubumba "kusetyenziswa kwabantu bonke"",[ Kelo v. Isixeko saseNew London [2005] ivumela uphuhliso lwezoqoqosho ukuba lufaneleke, luvuselele ukungquzula kwemithetho.

UMthetho Wesithandathu Wokwenziwa Kwezono: Ityala Elifanelekileyo Liyaqinisekiswa

ISindululo Sesithandathu siqinisekisa ukuba abamangalelwa bafanele bagwetywe ngokukhawuleza.

Ityala elikhawulezileyo nelasekuhlaleni

Ilungelo lokuvavanya ngokukhawuleza lithintela ukuvalelwa okungagqibekanga kwaye liqinisekisa ukuba ubungqina abupheli. INkundla ivavanya izinto ezine kwi- Barker v. Wingo [772]: ubude bolibaziseko, isizathu sokulibazisa, ukuma kommangalelwa, kunye nekhethe. Ityala likawonke-wonke linika ukubonakala kwelinye icala nokuphendula.

I Juli Engakhethi Buso

Abameli banelungelo lokufumana igqibi elikhethwe kwicandelo elifanelekileyo elinqamlezayo loluntu. Abameli bangavavanya abachopheli-jula ngesizathu okanye ngebhobhisi yokukhulula, nangona le yokugqibela ingasetyenziswa ngendlela yokusasaza umlomo ( Batson v. Kentucky, 1986).

Ujongo kunye nomgaqo-nkqubo wokunyanzelisa

IBhastile Claus iqinisekisa ilungelo lokujongana namangqina anqamlezileyo. IChost Proce Claus evumela abamangalelwa ukuba babize amangqina ukuze bawathande. Zombini ezi zibonelelo zimgamshela ukuba kudlalwe ibala lomdlalo phakathi korhulumente onamandla nomntu.

Uncedo Lwesiluleko

Ilungelo lokunika isiluleko libalulekile. Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) igunyaziswe ukuba ibonelele ngamagqwetha abamangalelwa abangenatyala kwiimeko ezingalunganga. Eli lungelo linwebela kumaqondo abalulekileyo okutshutshiswa, kuquka uncinwa nokuncedwa. Padilla v. Kentucky[ [2010], iNkuvumba yale ukuba isiluleko sicebisa abangengobaxhasi abangengo-citizenzi malunga neziphumo ezinokwenzeka zokugxothwa.

Uhlaziyo Lwesixhenxe: Izilingo Zomtshato

UHlaliso lweSebethi lugcina ilungelo lokuchophela ityala labachopheli-tyala kumatyala asekuhlaleni kumthetho oqhelekileyo apho imali edityanisiweyo ingaphezulu lee-irandi ezingama-20. Ngokungafaniyo noMphengululo weSithandathu, iSebe sesixhenxe asizange sisetyenziswe kumaphondo ngoMphengululo weshumi elinesine, ithetha ukuba iinkundla zephondo zisenokumisela amatyala asemthethweni. Noko ke, ityala lisenempembelelo engakumbi kwinkundla yephondo. Isigqibo sikwaqinisekisa ukuba xa inkundla yejaji yetyala ikhupha isigwebo, akukho nkundla enokuphinda ihlole izibakala izibakala ngaphandle kokuba ivunyelwe yimithetho eqhelekileyo.

IsiHlomelo Sesibhozo: Isigwebo

UMthetho Ohlaziyiweyo Wesibhozo awuvumi ukuba kuhlawulwe imali eninzi, kuhlawulwe ngokugqithiseleyo, kuze kuhlawulwe inkohlakalo nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga.

Ingxaki Egqithiseleyo

I-Bail kufuneka ingabekwanga phezulu kunemfuneko efanelekileyo ukuqinisekisa inkangeleko yommangalelwa xa evavanywa. Intengiselwano ayiqinisekisi ilungelo elipheleleyo lokubheja kodwa iyalela iimali ezingaphezulu ngokungekho ngqiqweni. Iingxoxo zale mihla zigxininisa ekuhlaziyweni kwebheyile yemali nasekuvalelweni kwabamangalelwa abangenatyala.

Isohlwayo Esinenkohlakalo Nesothusayo

Le ngxelo iyalwalela isohlwayo sobundlobongela kwaye ifuna ulwahlulo. Inkundla itolike ukugweba ukufa kwamaqela athile, njengabantu abakhubazekileyo ngokwasengqondweni (] Attins v. Virginia, 2002) kunye namatsha ([R2]Roper v. [isimons [, 2005]). Intengiso ezithi zisekwe ngokunzulu kulwaphulo-mthetho zingakwaphula ulwahluzo oluyi-8, nangona umgangatho u-mende ubeke imidatha kwiimeko zasentolongweni, njengendlela engafanelekanga yokunyamekela izigula.

IsiHlomelo Sesi - Ninth: Amalungelo Angazange Axhaswe Ngabantu

ISindululo se-Ninth Simplified sithi: "Ubalo kuMgaqo-siseko, lwamalungelo athile, aluzukuthathwa njengolukhanyelo okanye ucalulo kwabanye abantu abagcinwe ngabantu. Oku kulungisa kwakukuxolelwaniso ukuthetha uloyiko lokuba ukudwelisa amalungelo athile kuya kuthetha ukuba nawaphi na amalungelo angamiselwanga. ULawulo lweSindululo lweNtlalo alusoloko lusiba sisiseko esiphambili sezigwebo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo, kodwa lucatshulwe ngokungqubana kweembono ezikhoyo kunye nemfundo esemthethweni yokuxhasa amalungelo afana ne-emfihlo kunye ne-e-omfono. Umzekelo, iJastierberg's Gold:Galgrid iyavuma kwi-[FLT:]. Confticut[FLD [12:] [1965] [1965]) ixhomekeke kwi-Plumplity ukuba i-oddition i-odywordy ingabi yasekunene ingabinga kakuhle, nangona ingadwe kakuhle.

UHlaziyo lweshumi: Umanyano namalungelo kaRhulumente

UMthetho-Mpande-zincwadi weSihlalo weshumi elinambini ulwenzelo lweSindululo sicebe ukubeka ulawulo kumaphondo okanye abantu onke amagunya angagunyaziswanga kurhulumente worhulumente okanye angagunyaziswanga kumazwe. Sisikhumbuzo sokuba urhulumente wesizwe ngomnye wamagunya alinganiselweyo, adwelisweyo. Kwimbali yeMerika, iSimendo seshumi leSigqibo sokuHlaziya siye sasetyenziswa ukucelw'ucekisa igunya lorhulumente phezu kwayo yonke into esuka ekulawuleni imipu ([ Prempz v. United States[FLT], 1997], kumgaqo wemeko yendalo engqongileyo kunye nolawulo lwempilo. Inkundla yeNkuquluvo ivuselk-Hentith Demendment kwi19909, ukubetha iinxalenye zeBrady Act kunye neSikolo seSikolo seSitshayo soLawulo se-Gun Awumelelo Simthetho soburhulumente solawulo solawulo solawulo, urhulumente, urhulumente, kunye nolungelelwanolawulo olufanelekileyo.

Isiphelo: Ilifa Eliphilayo Lesiqinisekiso Samalungelo Abantu

IBhili yamaLungelo asiluxwebhu olucacileyo olungokwembali kodwa luluxwebhu olukhoyo oluthi iinkundla, iintsebenziswano, kunye nabemi luqhubeke lucacisa kwakhona. Ukhuseleko lwalo luye lwanwenwa ngokuchasene nolawulo lwe-14th Amelika noorhulumente, kwaye imigaqo yayo idityaniswe kwibala lobomi be-Melika. Ukuqonda ezokuqala ezilishumi ziyimfuneko kubafundisi nakubafundi kuba bechaza imida yamandla karhulumente kunye nomlinganiselo wenkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Ukusukela kwigumbi ukuya kwinkundla, ukusuka ekuvukelelweni ukuya kwingxoxo emfiliba, iBhilini yamaLungelo ihlala isiqinisekiso sokugqibelela kwenkululeko yaseMelika. [[2] [F3], iProvistion: [F] kunye neProjective projectives projective [F]]