Iimbopheleleko zoorhulumente borhulumente zibumba amagunya aphantsi kwemfundo yorhulumente waseMerika, abumba ubomi bemihla ngemihla bezigidi ngemfundo, ukhuseleko loluntu, impilo yoluntu, izibonelelo, ubugosa bokusingqongileyo, kunye nokusesikweni. Ngoxa umGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. unika urhulumente wesizwe amagunya athile, uMgaqo-siseko weshumi leSindululo ugcine onke amanye amagunya kumazwe. La magunya akakho nto ithile ithile; ayavavanywa kwaye achazwa ngokweemeko zokwenene ezimisela imizekelo engokomthetho kwaye atyhile iingxaki ezisebenzisekayo zokulawula. Ngokuvavanya izigqibo zenkundla yembali neziganeko ezibalulekileyo, sinokubona indlela amagunya asebenza ngayo kunye nemisebenzi yawo ebalulekileyo.

Imfundo nezikolo zikawonke-wonke

Imfundo mhlawumbi yeyona mbopheleleko ibonakalayo yoorhulumente bakarhulumente. Amazwe kufuneka anikele imfundo kawonke-wonke, amisele imigangatho yokufundisa, abafundisi abathembekileyo, kunye nemali ebonelelwa ngemali. Lo msebenzi wabunjwa ngendlela ephawulekayo lityala leNkundla ePhakamileyo yowe- 1954 Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[, eyavakalisa ukuba ukukhetha kohlanga kwizikolo zasekuhlaleni kwaphula iCommunity Clausleste of the Idemited. Esi perfectionure. Esi sigqibo sanyanzelwa ukuba kupheliswe iprojekthi eqinisekisa amathuba alinganayo okufundisa umntwana ngamnye. Ngoxa ummiselo wawuyindawo yokujika, ukwenziwa kwemithetho eyahlukeneyo kwiimeko ezibanzi, ikhokelela kumashumi eminyaka ede projekthi.

Ukubonelela Ngemali Kwesikolo

Urhulumente ulawula indlela izikolo zikawonke-wonke ezixhaswa ngayo ngemali, ngokufuthi zixhomekeke kakhulu kwirhafu yempahla yasekuhlaleni. Le nkqubo yacelw'elwa ku- ku-San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez (1973]. Isigqibo secala elisekhohlo sokunika inkxaso-mali eTexas sabangela ukuba indlela yokuxhasa ityala lephondo lephondo lephondo lithakazelelwane kakhulu phakathi kwezityebi namahlwempu, ukuphula umGaqo-siseko. Inkundla ephakamileyo ayivumelani, ilawula ukuba imfundo asilo lungelo eliphantsi komgaqo-siseko wezomthetho-siseko wesizwe. Isigqibo esisekhohlo sithetha ukunikela inkxaso yemali kwimeko ebanzi. Amalixa amaninzi ajongene nemfundo yenkundla yenkundla yasekuhlaleni kufuneka anike abafundi bonke abasekuhlaleni.

Imigangatho yemithetho kunye nokuphendula

Ngapha koko, kuchaza imigangatho yemfundo kunye neemfuno zovavanyo. Akukho Child Lend Behind Act (2001) kwaye kamva i-Everses Friecect (2015) ulawulo olubalulekileyo lokubuyela emva kwiimeko malunga noxanduva lokuphendula. Umzekelo, iMassachusetts ithathe iinkqubo ezingqongqo ezisoloko zidlula ii-avareji zesizwe, ngelinye ixesha abanye baye bajongana nokugxekwa ngenxa yokunciphisa imigangatho. Iimeko zokwehla kwemigangatho. Iimeko zokwenyani ezifana ne- Horne v. Flores [2009]) uphando lolwimi lwesiNgesi lweMicimbiso yemfundo yolu lwimi ludityaniswe neemfuno zomthetho ezigunyazwe ngurhulumente, kuqinisekisa umsebenzi wesizwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba imigaqo-mfundo inceda bonke abafundi ngokunelisayo. Ukuxinelo lwemeko lwesizwe.

Impilo Kawonke - wonke Nokhuseleko

Oorhulumente bangundoqo wempilo kawonke-wonke, ukulawula ukulawulwa kwezifo, ulawulo lwezibhedlele, iinkonzo zonyango longxamiseko, kunye nolawulo lwe-inshorensi yempilo. Imeko ephawulayo Jaconson v. Massachusetts [0] (05) iqinisekisa amandla amapolisa karhulumente okunyanzelisa imithetho yokugonya imigaqo enyanzelekileyo yokukhusela izinto eziqhelekileyo. UJacobson wala ukulwa ne-ankile yengqayitha, ukuxambulisana nayo kwaphula inkululeko yakhe; iNkukhosi ePhakamileyo ixhasa ilungelo lorhulumente lokufuna ukujoliswa, ukukhuselwa amalungelo okulwa kwempilo-ntlalo. Lo mba uhlala ungo kwimiqatha kwiingxoxo zangoku ephambili zokugonyaniswa kwe-COVID-19, apho oorhulumente begunyaziso, ii-odokisi, kunye neemfuno ze-anti ze-antimenti zithe ngokungqinwa rhoqo.

Ukulungiselelwa Ngexesha Lentlekele Nokusabela Kwintlekele

I-Rouce ithwala imbopheleleko ephambili yokulungiselela nokusabela kwintlekele zendalo kunye neengxaki zempilo kawonke-wonke. Ukuphendula okuyintlekele [[FLT: 0] kwe-Hurcane Katrina ngo-2005] ukuchanabeka okunzima kolawulo lukarhulumente. Ukungahambelani nolwakhiwo oluthe ngcembe lwalo loLouisiana, ukungalungelelani nokungalungelelani noomeli besizwe, kunye nobuninzi bemithombo yoluntu ekhokelela kumawaka abantu abafayo nababandezelekileyo. Ngokulandelayo uphando oluqhubekayo [[FLT] I-Governmental Accodentity [[FLT: 3] ikhuthaza utshintsho olukhulu kwizicwangciso zikarhulumente. Namhlanje, njengoFlorida neTexas ibonelone iziphumo ezivusemngeniswe yintlekele, kodwa iimeko ezinjalo kunyaka-umphalathi we-U. I-ultrase-Fod .[5] kunye nomthetho othenjisiweyo wolawulo oluthenjiweyo.[Fod : "Fod .]

Impilo Yokusingqongileyo Nomoya Ococekileyo

Oorhulumente baseburhulumenteni bakwakhusela impilo kawonke-wonke ngomthetho wokusingqongileyo. [Isigqibo esigxininiswe kumthetho wokhuseleko lwemekobume ye-arhente (2007]), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba ukuba i-EPA inegunya lokulawula iigesi ezifudumeza igesi phantsi komgangatho womoya ophezulu, kodwa ityala laqaliswa ngurhulumente ofuna ukunyanzela umsebenzi kazwelonke. Esi sigqibo sigxininise amalungelo ee kumaqumrhu esizwe ngenxa yokusilela ukukhusela imeko-bume. Amanye amaphondo, njengomkhosi waseCalifornia, aye ahambela phambili ngokusebenzisa imilinganiselo yawo eqinileyo yomgangatho womoya. [[FLT.2] I-Caliniafoniafonia Moves Burbuorbuard Boover Burbunia [FLct:3] simisela imidalo yemiqatha yemiqatha yemithetho yesizwe, ehamba amanye amazwe.

Izithuthi Nezakhiwo

Oorhulumente bamazwe banezi ntlobo-ntlobo zendlela, iindlela, iibhulorho, kunye neenkqubo zothutho lukawonke-wonke. Bakwalawula urhwebo lwezorhwebo, ukukhupha imvume yokuqhuba, kwaye bamisele imithetho yeenqwelo-moya. Ukudibanisa phakathi kwegunya lorhulumente nelorhulumente kwizithuthi kuntsonkothile, njengokuba kuboniswe [ United States v. California[FLT][1] [19978].[FLT] [195]].[FLS][FS][FLT][FT][FFF:3] [5]).

Imisebenzi yokwakha ebonelelwayo

Urhulumente uxhomekeke kwintlanganisela yerhafu yepetroli karhulumente, iimali zobhaliso lwezithuthi, kunye nemali enika inkxaso-mali. UMthetho wokubuyisa nokulungisa iMelika noMqathango we-FLT:1] ka-2009 wamawaka ezigidi kwimigangatho karhulumente "iiibhiliyoni" imisebenzi, evuselela uqoqosho lwezoqoqosho lwengingqi lwelizwe ngexesha ulungisa iindlela kunye neebhulorho. Kutshanje, [[FLT:] [FLD]] Imali exhotyikisiweyo kunye noMthetho weSebe [20] [20] inikezela ngenye i-5 lamawaka ezigidi ze-dolanupu ekulawuleni imicimbi yezomthetho, imisebenzi esetyenziswayo, iziphatha iisakhiwo sezakhiwo zezakhiwo zezemali, ilawule izakhiwo zezentengonyaka emihlanu, kunye nokuqinisekisa ukubukelelwa kobuzwe. [FFF]

Uthutho lukawonke-wonke nokufuduswa

Amazwe akwavelela amagunya ezothutho kawonke-wonke . njengakwi-MTA okanye i-Khalifoniya. La masebe ajongene nocelomngeni olukhulu: izibonelelo ezalupheleyo, iintsilelo, kunye nokutshintsha kwendlela yokuhamba. ICHOVAD-19 etshabalalisa inqwelo-moya yokuhamba, ekhokelela kwibheyile kunye neendlela ezintsha ezifana ne-metalbrustrugsion primesurgement (umz., inkqubo ecwangciselweyo yesiXeko saseNew York). Amazwe ngoku azama ngezithuthi ezizimeleyo, izithuthi ezifuna izithuthi zombane ezifuna izithuthi, kunye nezixhobo eziphezulu zezithuthi zombane ezithelela isantya. [[FLT:] Caliout [[0]forn Ral Reault Rat Adminity ngumzekelo ophikisayo, kunye nokulitya okuzinziswa kwemiqobo.

Ukhuseleko lokusingqongileyo

Umthetho wokusingqongileyo ngumthetho owenziwe ngurhulumente wephondo, kodwa urhulumente usoloko esebenza njengeelaboratori zedemokhrasi ngokumisela imigangatho engqongqo. Umzekelo we Massachusetts v. EPA (2007), ekhankanyiweyo, unike amaphondo amatyala amileyo kwimiba yemozulu. Kodwa kwakhona athatha inyathelo elingqalileyo: balawula ubunjani bamanzi phantsi koMthetho ococekileyo, balawule inkunkuma eyingozi, bagcine amazwe kawonke-wonke. uGluvo olushushu oluphambili [AFLT] [FLT] uhlahlolo olunokyo, oludala umgangatho wenkqubo yesizwe. Okunye okufana nowe-Washington, lulandele imithetho yayo.

Ukunyanzeliswa Kwamandla Karhulumente Nesuti Yabami

Urhulumente uqinisekisa imithetho yemeko-bume ngoorhulumente abafana neKhomishoni yeTexas on Environmental Scenation okanye iSebe laseKhalifoniya lokuLawula. Noko ke, ukunyanzelisa kusenokungalingani. Imeko ye- Gwaltney of Smithfield v. I-Chesapeake Bay Foundation (1987) icacisa ukuba abemi bangagweba abahlaziyi benkqubo yokwaphula umgaqo we-Paralitisme ngenxa yokwaphulo lwe-Phondo, nokokuba isebe lesizwe liyayeka ukwenza. Le projekthi-ya-ethematilo-nga ihlala ithetha ukuba ityala lenkundla yomthetho limele ukubekwa. Kodwa umgudu obalulekileyo ngumzamo we-orhulumente we-ofisi ye-owonke-New York York'Accomption's , ichaza ukuchatsha kwemigatho ye-e-Propolence, ityala.

Ukusetyenziswa Kwamazwe Nemithombo Yemvelo

I-States ilawula amazwe kawonke-wonke kwimida yawo (ii-pacrative). Zikwalawula amazwe azimeleyo asetyenziswayo phakathi kwendawo kunye nempembelelo yemekobume. Ukuthatha inxalenye ngezantsi ``````ulawulo lukarhulumente ngokunempumelelo' ukutshabalalisa ixabiso lempahla-----ikhonza ukuba ifumaneke rhoqo. Lucas v. IBhunga loMzantsi Koloni-mzini [1992], iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho wokuba umnini-mhlaba amele ahlawulelwe xa umthetho welizwe uthintela ukusetyenziswa kwempahla ngokwemali. Le meko inyanzelelwa ukulungele ukukhusela imekobume kunye namalungelo empahla. Amazwe amaninzi aye asabela ngokuyila "indawo yogcino-ovimba-mali" okanye ukuphuhlisalwa kwemigrac.

Okusesikweni Kwezaphuli - mthetho Nokhuseleko Loluntu

Oorhulumente abalawula inkqubo yobulungisa: bamisela izigwebo, amasebe amapolisa axhasa inkxaso-mali, baqhuba iintolongo, kwaye banika isigwebo. Ityala le- Furman v. Georgia [772] yasinciphisa isigwebo sokufa njengoko sisetyenzisiweyo ngoko, ifumana isohlwayo kunye nesokukhupha umthetho. Oku kwakhokelela kwisigqibo sombuso welizwe lonke, kodwa ekugqibeleni kukwakheka umgangatho weenguqu-imeko zemali, kwaye emva koko kuye kwaqhubeka ukuphikisana neendleko zokuphelisa isohlwayo, ngoxa eminye imimiselo ehlaziweyo iphumeza ngokupheleleyo imilinganiselo emiselwe ngokwemiqatha. Greggv v. [6]] [10] isigqibo esivunywa ngokusemthethweni, kodwa kuthethwa ukuba kukhutshwe iindleko ezithene.

Ukulungisa Ingxaki Nesohlwayo

Ingxoxo yentanda-bulumko phakathi kwesohlwayo kunye nokubuyiselwa kwakhona idlalwa ngokwemigaqo-nkqubo yesizwe. Amanye amaphondo, njengoTexas, aye afaka kakhulu intlawulo ku "processition" iinkqubo zokunciphisa i-divosi, njengee- i-Textas Reentry kunye ne-Integition Services. Ezinye, njenge-FLT:1 yase California, ziye zanciphisa abemi bentolongo ngotshintsho lolwaphulo-mthetho olufana nomthetho, oluthi luphinde lwahlula ityala elithile elingaphazamisi-mthetho elisuka kwityala elingu-8. Ityala le-fel le-felmsssssss. Ngoku kufuneka linikezele iimeko ze-Plata[FLT [FLT][FLT][3] "1] inyanze i-mali ephantsi kwemithetho yerhafuthenjiweyo, ilawula ukuhla kwezo, ukuphelisa i-mali, i-endla yezolongo eliphantsi sengqondo, eliphantsi sezo eliphantsi se-enjiweyo.

Utshintsho Lwamapolisa Nokhuseleko Loluntu

Urhulumente umisela imilinganiselo yokuqeqesha abaphathi bomthetho, ukusebenzisa amandla, nokuziphendulela. Ukubulawa kukaGeorge Floyd ngo-2020 kwabangela ukuhlaziywa kwamapolisa akwiqondo eliphezulu, kuquka ukuvalwa kwemiqathango, iikhamera ezinyanzelisayo, kunye nokukhutshwa kwemithetho-siseko yabaphathi-mikhosi. Umzekelo, [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [[0] [iiiiiNqaqo lomthetho] [ii-Min-Minsota] [[FLT] [iiiiiii-Akhawunti] [iiiiii-Akhawunti] [iiiiiiii-'i-'i-'i-i-i-i-i-Amproffi, ummiselo okhuselwe irekhohlo. Noko ke, kufuneka kulungele ukugcinwa kokhuseleko lwasesidlanga-mthetho, ukubonakala kolwaphulo-mthetho kulwaphulo-mthetho kwizixeko. [iK]

Uphuhliso lwezoqoqosho neenkonzo zentlalo

Ngaphaya kwemiphakamo engasentla, kuchaza ukuba banendima ebalulekileyo kwinkqubela yezoqoqosho nentlalo-ntle. Basebenzisa i-inshorensi yokungaqeshwa, banika uncedo lwemali yexeshana (TENF), kwaye balawula amashishini okusebenza. Imeko ye Dandridge v. Williams[ [1970]) ixhasa umkhwa kaMaryland wokuhlawula intlawulo lwentlalo-ntle yoluntu kungakhathaliseki umlinganiselo wentsapho, iqinisekisa umgangatho wemali elungileyo yemali ekwiqondo lemali. Kutshanje, i-COVID-19 ithe ukungquzulana kwemisebenzi, ukuqinisekisa ukurhoxisana nokunga, ukunikezelwa kwemisebenzi enika abantwana izikhuthazo, kunye nokuxoko.[5] I-AFFFS, i-octive.[4] I-ANT.[4] Ii-PGPGPG, i-off.[4] Iinjongo zemfazwe, apho kuthenjiso , apho kuthenjiso , i-off.[

Ukhuseleko Lwabasebenzi Nemithetho Yemisebenzi

Irejista ingamkela ukhuseleko lwazo lwemisebenzi kunye neenkqubo zezempilo ukuba zihlangabezana nemigangatho karhulumente (KAL/OSA ngumzekelo omnye). Zikwamisela imivuzo encinane ngaphezu komgangatho wesiZwe, `29' samazwe kunye ne D.C. ngoku zinomvuzo omncinci ophezulu. Imeko ye [ Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transitan Aguversity [[[[FLL:1]] [1985]) isebenzisa imithetho yemali karhulumente ehlawulwayo kurhulumente, iqinisekisa ukuba amazwe amele athobele imigangatho yempatho yemisebenzi yesizwe. Sekunjalo agcina amandla okudlula kwimithetho elungileyo yemisebenzi, imimiselo, imimiselo, kunye nemiyalelo ehlawulwayo. Imeko yesizwe efuna ikhefuthelweyo kumazwe anjenge-New York, California, kunye ne-Washington ibonisa indlela ezimele ngayo ezi migaqo zolawulo zolawulo zoluntu.

Isiphelo

Iimbopheleleko zoorhulumente bamazwe zibanzi njengangoko zinjalo. Ukusuka kwigumbi lokufundela ukuya kwindlu yenkundla, ukusuka ekulondolozweni kwebrorho ukuya ekuthintelweni kwezifo, amatyala angundoqo wolawulo lwaseMelika xa kufikelelwa kubomi bemihla ngemihla. Iimeko zokwenene zixutyushwa ` Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo, [[FLT]], [[FLT]] i-v:3], [[FLT], [[FFT]], [[FFT] i-An Antonio Independent School School. "Rodriguex[FLT] [5]], [uhlulonke], [[FLT], njengoko ubuchule obuyimfuneko obukhoyo, njengoko kuqhubeka njalo, ulawulo lwezopolitiki, ukunceda nanjengoko lobukhompume lwamastians (umphaka).[FT] [FT]], ukunceda uluntu oluqhelekileyo lobudlela lobukho , njengoko kuthelela nanjengolu ,