Table of Contents

UMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States umi njengenye yezona ndlela zinempembelelo kwimbali yanamhlanje, kodwa ukutolikwa kwawo kusengumbandela wengxoxo eqhubekayo phakathi kwabaphengululi bomthetho, abagwebi, kunye nabaqulunqi bemithetho. Ukuqonda indlela umGaqo-siseko onokuchazwa ngayo kubalulekile kumntu ofuna ukuqonda indlela esebenza ngayo umthetho waseMerika nozimo zabakho ngayo. Iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokutolika umGaqo-siseko ziguqula yonke into ukusuka kwizigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye nokusetyenziswa kwemithetho echaphazela izigidi zabemi. Ezi ndlela zokucacisa zimela iintandabulumko ezahlukileyo ngokomthetho, indima yabagwebi, kunye nolwalamano phakathi kweejaji, kunye noluvo lwangoku.

Yintoni Ukutolika UmGaqo-siseko?

Ingcaciso yezomGaqo-siseko ibhekisela kwinkqubo esetyenziswa ngabagwebi, abaphengululi bomthetho, nabanye abadlali ukugqiba intsingiselo yombhalo womGaqo-siseko baze bawusebenzise kwiimeko ezithile. Ezona ndlela ziqhelekileyo zokutolikwa komGaqo-siseko zisetyenziswa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo ukubonisa ukusetyenziswa kwezi ndlela, kwaye indlela nganye iveza iingcamango ezahlukeneyo ngendlela imibhalo engokwasemthethweni emele iqondwe ngayo.

Umbuzo wendlela yokuchaza umGaqo-siseko asiyomfundo nje enzulu. Unentsingiselo enzulu kumalungelo omntu ngamnye, amagunya karhulumente, kunye nolungelelwano phakathi kwegunya lorhulumente norhulumente. Iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokutolika zinokukhokelela kwiziphumo ezahlukahlukeneyo ezibandakanya ukuthetha ngokukhululekileyo, amalungelo obuqu, igunya elilawulayo, neminye imibuzo emininzi engokomGaqo-siseko.

Ingxoxo emalunga nokuchazwa komGaqo-siseko yakhula ekupheleni kwenkulungwane yama-20 kwaye iyaqhubeka namhlanje, ijoliswe kubagwebi nabaphengululi abaxhasa iindlela ezahlukeneyo. Ngoxa abanye bekholelwa ukuba umGaqo-siseko umele uqondwe ngokwentsingiselo yawo yantlandlolo, abanye baphikisa ngokuthi ufanele ulungelelane nebutho labantu bexesha langoku. ukanti abanye bagxininisa ngokungqongqo kwimibhalo ngokwayo okanye baqwalasele iziphumo ezisebenzayo zeenkcazelo ezahlukeneyo.

Unqulo Lwamandulo: Ukutolika umGaqo-siseko Ngokuvisisana Nentsingiselo Yawo Yokuqala

Ingcamango yobuGaqo-siseko yeyaseUnited States esekelwe kumGaqo-siseko, kwisigwebo, nakwinkcazelo engokwasemthethweni yombhalo kwinkcazelo yokuqala ngexesha lokumkelwa kwayo. Le ndlela iye yaba nempembelelo engakumbi kumthetho wezomthetho-siseko waseMerika, ingakumbi kumthetho obambelele kwizithethe nakubaphengululi abangokwasemthethweni.

Imigaqo Efanelekileyo Yokubaluleka Kwangaphambili

Izazi ngenkcazo zikholelwa ukuba umbhalo womgaqo-siseko kufuneka unikwe intsingiselo yantlandlolo kawonke-wonke yokuba wawuya kuba ngumthetho ngexesha. Le ndlela ixhomekeke kwisiseko sokuba umGaqo-siseko unentsingiselo engatshintshiyo engazitshintshanga ekuhambeni kwexesha ngaphandle kokuba ulungiswe ngokusesikweni kwinkqubo echazwe kwiGatya V lomGaqo-siseko.

Intsingiselo yokuqala yezibhalo zomGaqo-siseko inokuqondwa kwisichazi-magama, kwiincwadi zegrama, nakwamanye amaxwebhu asemthethweni apho umbhalo usenokuboleka khona. Kwakhona kunokuchazwa kwiziganeko ezingokwesiseko ezingokomthetho nengxoxo kawonke wonke eyabangela ukuba kubekho ilungiselelo lomgaqo-siseko. Abaxhasi bembali balujonga olu phando lwembali njengolubalulekileyo ukugcina umthetho kwaye bathintele abagwebi ukuba bangayimiseli imithetho yabo.

Ukungakhathalelwanga Kwantlandlolo Ngokuchasene Nentsingiselo Yantlandlolo Kawonke - wonke

Inkcazo yoqobo ngokwayo ibandakanya iindlela ezahlukeneyo. Bambi abaphengululi abadumileyo bathi xa betolika umGaqo-siseko, ubani umele akhangele kwinjongo yokuqala yabantu ababhalisa, abacetyiweyo, abanconywayo, okanye abagunyazisa umGaqo-siseko ukugqiba oko abo bantu babefuna ukukudlulisela ngombhalo. Ngokutsho kwale mbono, injongo yantlandlolo inokufunyanwa kwimithombo engaphaya kombhalo, njengengxoxo kwiConvenmental Commental okanye kwiiProvist.

Noko ke, xa ubuBhosa bathatyathwa okokuqala njengenye indlela engcono yokuphila ngomgaqo-siseko, yachazwa ngokwenjongo yantlandlolo yabaseki. Kodwa xa kujongwana nobunzima, yaye ngenene nokungafanelekanga, kokuzama ukufunda iingqondo zabaqhubi bomGaqo-siseko, abaxhasi bobuGaqo-siseko bakhawuleza bayeka ukuthetha ngenjongo yantla, baza endaweni yoko bagxininisa kwintsingiselo yokuqala yamazwi omGaqo-siseko.

Ngenkqubo yeJaji uAntonin Scalia emalunga neminyaka engamashumi amathathu kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, yena kunye nabaphengululi abaliqela abadumileyo bacacisa ukuba, njengezazi zoqobo, babezimisele ukuzama ukuqonda intsingiselo yantlandlolo yomGaqo-siseko. Le ndlela iqwalasela intsingiselo ecacileyo yombhalo woMgaqo-siseko njengokuba ibinokuqondwa nguwonke-wonke, okanye ngumntu onengqondo, owayephila ngexesha lomGaqo-siseko wagunyaziswa.

Iimpikiswano Ezinconywa Yingcamango Yantlandlolo

Abaxhasi bobuGaqo-siseko banikela uthethelela oluninzi lwale ndlela yokuchaza. Abaxhasi bobuGaqo-siseko baphikisa ngelithi ukufikelela kwimida yemigaqo yokugweba, ukuthintela abagwebi ekugqibeni amatyala ngokweembono zabo zezobupolitika. Ngokumisa intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko ekuqondeni okungokwembali, abaxhasi bembali baphikisa ukuba abagwebi banyanzelwa yinto engaphandle kubo kunokuba bakhululeke ukunyanzela imilinganiselo yabo yobuqu.

Enye ingxubusho isekelwe ekugunyazisweni kwedemokhrasi. Abaxhasi baphikisa ngelithi ukusetyenziswa kwemibhalo yedemokhrasi kukhuthaza imilinganiselo yedemokhrasi ngenxa yokuba inamathela kumazwi omGaqo-siseko owamkelwe ngabantu ngokuchasene noko amalungisa acinga okanye akukholelwayo. UmGaqo-siseko wagunyaziswa ngenkqubo yedemokhrasi, kwaye uguqula intsingiselo yawo ngaphandle kokupheliswa okusesikweni kwenkqubo leyo.

Ukwenziwa konqulo kusekelwe kuhambiso lweminyaka emibini oluphakathi kumgaqo-siseko, kwaye lusemva komGaqo-siseko wase-U. sonke esi siluleko sixhasa imvelaphi yangaphambili kunokuba kucaciswe okuphilayo komGaqo-siseko, ngokwezixhasi zawo.

Ukugxekwa KobuGcisa

Phezu kwayo nje impembelelo yayo ekhulayo, ubuBhosa bujongene nokugxekwa okubalulekileyo. Abahlalutyi abaninzi bayathandabuza ukuba bubuphi ubukho bendalo obusebenzayo ingcamango yokutolikwa komGaqo-siseko. Baphikisa ngelithi uqobo yindlela engaguquguqukiyo, enesiphene yokuchaza umGaqo-siseko, ixhathisa ukuba abantu bexesha elinye bengenakucinga ngezinye iimeko eziza kuvela kumaxesha anamhlanje.

Abahlalutyi bahlabela mgama besithi ukutolika umGaqo-siseko osekelwe kwintsingiselo yokuqala kungasilela ukukhusela amalungelo amancinane ngenxa yokuba amabhinqa namancinane ayengenawo amalungelo afanayo ngexesha lokuFunyaniswa kwawo namhlanje. Oku kuphakamisa imibuzo enzulu yokuba uxwebhu olubhalwe kwimeko eyahlukileyo kakhulu yentlalo lungathetha ngokufanelekileyo kuxhalabisa okukhoyo ngexesha lokulingana nokusesikweni.

Umphengululi weSikolo soMthetho saseHarvard uRichard H. Fallon Jr. uthi abagwebi beNkundla Ephakamileyo abathi bakholelwa kwizinto zakudala ngokwenene basebenzisa ingcamango yokumiselwa kolwazi ngobuchule obukhethekileyo, bebonisa ukuba le ngcamango ayinakunyanzela ukugweba kanye njengokuba abaxhasi bayo besithi.

Ukukhula Kwembali Yobunzululwazi

Umbhali uRobert Bork unconywa ngokufaka ingcamango yokuqala yale mihla yobukho bokuqala kwinqaku lakhe lomthetho lika-1971. UBork wacebisa enye indlela esemthethweni yokuphepha ukhetho lwexabiso lomthetho: ukuze abagwebi bathabathe kulwakhiwo olukhethekileyo lwexabiso elibhaliweyo olubonisa ukuba izifekethi zizimisele. Oku kwaphawula ukuqala kobuGcisa bobuGcisa bokwazi ukuzichaza.

Le ngcamango yafumana igalelo elibalulekileyo kwezobupolitika kwiminyaka yee-1980 njengempendulo koko abantu ababambelele kwimithetho yokuziphatha bakugqala njengokuphangwa yiNkundla yaseWarren kunye namalungu ayo. Ukuvuselelwa kobuQuquluko kwiminyaka yoo1980 yaba kukusabela kwingcamango ye-"UmGaqo-siseko Ophilayo", eyayinempembelelo phakathi kwabagwebi nabaphengululi abanobugociso.

UmGaqo-siseko Ophilayo: Ukuqhelana Noluntu Lwanamhlanje

UmGaqo-siseko Ophilayo, okanye i-pragmatism egwebayo, yimbono yokuba umgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. unentsingiselo esebenzayo nokuba uxwebhu alulungiswanga ngokusemthethweni. Abaxhasi bawujonga umgaqo-siseko njengophuhlisa iimfuno zebutho labantu kwaye unika oorhulumente isixhobo sokubumba esingakumbi.

Ingcamango Engokwengcamango YobuGaqo-siseko Obuphilayo

UmGaqo-siseko ophilayo yileyo iguqukayo, itshintsheke ekuhambeni kwexesha, kwaye ilungelelanise neemeko ezintsha, ngaphandle kokulungiswa ngokusemthethweni. Le ndlela iyavuma ukuba umGaqo-siseko wabhalwa ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini ezidlulileyo kwaye ihlabathi liye latshintsha ngokuphawulekayo ukususela ngoko ngendlela ebengenakulindela ngayo amaFramers.

UmGaqo-siseko obhaliweyo wamkelwa kwiminyaka engama-2020 eyadlulayo. Ungalungiswa, kodwa inkqubo yokulungisa inzima kakhulu. Okwangoku, ihlabathi liguquke ngeendlela ezingathethekiyo. Izazi zomgaqo-siseko ophilayo ziphikisa ngelithi ukunamathela ngokungqongqo kwiingqiqo zenkulungwane ye-18 kungenza umGaqo-siseko ungabi namsebenzi kwaye ungakwazi ukucombulula iingxaki zale mihla.

Imbono yeqela iphikisa ngelithi ukutolika umGaqo-siseko ngokuvisisana nentsingiselo yawo yokuqala okanye injongo maxa wambi ayamkeleki njengombandela wenkqubo kwaye ngoko utoliko olujikelezayo luyimfuneko. Imbono yesibini iphikisa ukuba izifekta zomGaqo-siseko zibhale umGaqo-siseko ngokungqalileyo ngokweentetho ezibanzi nezithambileyo ukwenza uxwebhu olunamandla "ukuphila".

Indlela Imithetho YomGaqo-siseko Esebenza Ngayo

Indlela engundoqo yesithethe sethu esiphilayo somGaqo-siseko iyindlela ethathwe kumthetho oqhelekileyo nesekelwe kwimizekelo nesithethe. Kunokuba ijongwe ngokuyintloko kwimbali yolwazi, abaLawuli bomGaqo-siseko abaphilayo bagxininisa indima yemimiselo esesikweni nemilinganiselo yentlalo egqwethekileyo.

Umbhalo womGaqo-siseko uza kudlala, ubukhulu becala, indima yesithethe. Umsebenzi omninzi wokwenyaniso uza kwenziwa ngohlalutyo lweNkundla lwezigqibo zayo zangaphambili. Oku kubonisa indlela umthetho womgaqo-siseko okhula ngayo ngenkqubo yotshintsho nolwandiso.

Le mbono igxininisa ukuba umbhalo womGaqo-siseko kufuneka uqondwe kwimeko yebutho lanamhlanje, uvumela ucalucalulo oluthetha ngemibandela yale mihla engagutyungelwanga ngokucacileyo kuxwebhu lokuqala. Umzekelo, ukhuseleko loMgaqo-nkqubo wesine ekuphandeni okungekhoyo nokuxhuzula luye lwasetyenziswa kubugcisa obufana nokukhupha ucingo, ukulandelela i-GPS, kunye nogcino-lwazi lwamanani olungekhoyo xa intengiso ivunyiwe.

Iingxelo Ezixhasa UbuGaqo-siseko Obuphilayo

Abameli bomGaqo-siseko ophilayo baphikisa ngelithi le ndlela iyimfuneko kwaye iyanqweneleka. Akukho ndlela ifanelekileyo yokukhetha umGaqo-siseko ophilayo, onikwe ubunzima benkqubo yokulungisa kunye notshintsho oluphawulekayo kwibutho labantu, ubugcisa, kunye namaxabiso ukususela kwixesha lokuFunywa.

Abaxhasi boqobo abanayo impendulo kumbuzo odumileyo kaThomas Jefferson: kutheni sifanele sivumele abantu ababephila kudala, kwihlabathi elahlukileyo, ukuba bagqibe imibuzo engundoqo ngorhulumente wethu nebutho lethu lanamhlanje? Izazi zomGaqo-siseko eziphilayo ziphikisa ngelithi isizukulwana ngasinye simele sibe nobuchule bokucombulula iingxaki zaso kwaye sibonakalise imilinganiselo yaso.

Amalungelo amaninzi asemthethweni ananditshwa ngabemi baseMerika ngoku abangelwa yingcamango ephilayo yoMgaqo - siseko, kuquka amalungelo okufihla intloko, ukukhuselwa kwamabhinqa alinganayo nezinye iziganeko eziye zandisa inkululeko yomntu ngamnye ngaphezu koko kwakusaziwa ekuFunyanweni.

Ukugxekwa KobuGaqo-siseko Obuphilayo

Abachasi basoloko bephikisa ngelithi umGaqo-siseko ufanele utshintshwa yinkqubo yokulungisa ngenxa yokuba ukuvumela abagwebi batshintshe intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko kunciphisa idemokhrasi. Oku kugxekwa kubetha kwintsebenziswano yomGaqo-siseko ophilayo, kuthandabuza ilungelo labagwebi abangamiselwanga abawenzayo umlinganiselo weenguqu zomgaqo-siseko.

Enye ingxubusho echasene nomGaqo-siseko ophilayo yeyokuba ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho, kunokuba kuboniswe izigwebo, kumela ngakumbi ukuthanda kwabantu baseUnited States kwiriphabliki yomGaqo-siseko. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi abagwebi abahlaziya intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko bathatha indima yabameli abanyuliweyo.

Izigqibo zomthetho ezenziwe ngengcamango yomGaqo-siseko ophilayo zixhomekeke kwinkcazelo ekhawulezileyo yabagwebi abafanelekileyo. Kwizigwebo ezininzi, abagwebi beNkundla Ephakamileyo benza izigqibo ezisekelwe kwiinkcazelo zabo zobuqu zomGaqo-siseko. Kumaxesha anamhlanje, olu qheliselo luye lwahlolwa ngenxa yokwanda kobugqeba phakathi kwabagwebi. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi abagwebi balawula ngokusekelwe kwiimbono zeqela lezobupolitika kunokuba bachaze ngokweendlela esemthethweni.

Impikiswano Phakathi Kobuqalo NobuGaqo - siseko Obuphilayo

UbuGaqo-siseko budla ngokuthelekiswa njengengcamango yokutolika umGaqo-siseko kunye noBugqeba obuphilayo. AbaLawuli bomgaqo-siseko abaphilayo bakholelwa ukuba intsingiselo yenkcazelo yetekisi yomgaqo-siseko iyatshintsha ekuhambeni kwexesha, njengoko isimo sengqondo sentlalo sitshintsha, nangaphandle kokusetyenziswa kotshintsho olusemthethweni olusemthethweni. Oku kumela ukungavumelani okusisiseko ngomgaqo-siseko.

Izazi ngembali ziphikisa ngelithi intsingiselo yengcaciso yomgaqo-siseko imisiwe kwaye kufuneka ibophe abadlali bomGaqo-siseko. Abaxhasi bomgaqo-siseko abaphilayo baphikisa ngelithi umthetho womGaqo-siseko unakho kwaye ufanele uguquke ukuze uphendule kwiimeko namaxabiso atshintshileyo. Le mibono ikhuphisanayo ibonisa indlela eyahlukileyo yokuqonda ulawulo olusemthethweni, lolawulo lwedemokhrasi, kunye nomthetho.

Ingxoxo phakathi kwezi ndlela ineziphumo ezisebenzisekayo. Abaxhasi bomgaqo-siseko abaphilayo bakholelwa ukuba ucalucalulo lobuhlanga lwalungumGaqo-siseko ukususela ngo-1877 ukuya ku1954, ngenxa yokuba uluvo lukawonke-wonke lwaluvumela, kwaye lwajika lwaba lungekho mthethweni kuphela ngenxa yesigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwiBrown v.. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, iingcali zobudala zicinga ukuba uGaqo-siseko weshumi elinesine usoloko ululela ucalulo lobuhlanga, icacisa indlela eyahlukileyo enokuthi ngayo iindlela zotoliko lwahluke ngokupheleleyo kwintsingiselo yesiseko.

Ukubhala: Ukunikela Intsingiselo Ecacileyo Yamazwi

Ukubhalwa kwemibhalo yindlela yokutolika egxininisa kwintsingiselo ecacileyo yombhalo woxwebhu olusemthethweni. Ngoxa inxulumene nemvelaphi yantlandlolo, ukubhalwa kwemibhalo yesandla kuneempawu zayo eyahlukileyo nendlela esetyenziswa ngayo.

Oko Kuthethwa Kukuguqulelwa KweZibhalo

Ukubhalwa kombhalo yingcamango engokwesithethe apho ukutolikwa kombhalo kusekelwe kwintsingiselo eqhelekileyo yombhalo osemthethweni ngexesha lokumiswa kwawo, apho kuqwalaselwa kancinci kwimithombo engengombhalo, njengenjongo yomthetho xa udluliswa, ingxaki eyayicetyelwe ukucombulula, okanye imibuzo enxulumene nokusesikweni okanye nokungalingani komthetho.

Inkcazo yendlela yokubhala yingcamango yokuba kufuneka sitolike imibhalo esemthethweni, kuquka umGaqo-siseko, esekelwe kwintsingiselo eqhelekileyo yombhalo. Umbhali utyeshela iinkalo ezingaphandle kombhalo, njengengxaki echazwa ngumthetho okanye oko abazobi bomthetho basenokuba bacebise ngako. Kodwa ithetha ukuqwalasela oko kuthethwa ngamagama namagama namagama abhalweyo xa ummiselo othile womGaqo-siseko wamkelwa.

Ukubhalwa kombhalo kudla ngokugxininisa indlela amagama akwinkqubo yomGaqo-siseko aya kuqondwa ngayo ngabantu ngexesha awagunyaziswa ngalo, kwakunye nomongo abekwe ngawo la magama. Iingcali zobhalo zidla ngokukholelwa ukuba kukho intsingiselo ebhaliweyo, kwaye azibuzi imibuzo ngokuphathelele injongo yabaqhubi bezo ziganeko, abaxhasi, okanye abakhaphi bomGaqo-siseko.

Ulwalamano Phakathi Kokubhala Nemvelaphi

I-textalism licandelo elisezantsi lobukho bendalo kwaye yaphuhliswa ukuze iphephe ezinye iintsingiselo ezingalunganga zobuGcisa bantlandlolo njengoko beqale bachazwa. Ezi ndlela zimbini zinezizathu ezicacileyo ezidibeneyo kodwa zahluka ngeendlela ezibalulekileyo.

Umahluko phakathi kwazo ngowomsebenzi, kungekhona intanda - bulumko: UbuGaqo-siseko bubhekisela ngokukhethekileyo ekutolikeni umGaqo-siseko ngokusekelwe kwintsingiselo yamagama adluliselwa ngexesha lokubhalwa, ngoxa ukuguqulela imibhalo kubhekisela ekutolikeni zonke iindinyana ezisemthethweni ngentsingiselo eqhelekileyo yombhalo, kubeke bucala oothunywashe kungekhona kumbhalo ngokwawo.

Le ndlela iqwalasela intsingiselo ecacileyo yombhalo womGaqo-siseko njengokuba ibiya kuqondwa nguwonke-wonke, okanye ngumntu onolwazelelelo, owayephila ngexesha umGaqo-siseko wagunyaziswa. Le ndlela iyafana kakhulu nemibhalo, kodwa ayifani. Intsingiselo yantlandlolo yolwazi ngomGaqo-siseko ayisekelwanga kumbhalo, kodwa, kunoko, itsalela kwiintsingiselo yoluntu yoqobo yombhalo njengesikhokelo sokutolika.

Ukubhala Ngokuchasene Nolwakhiwo Olungqongqo

Kubalulekile ukwahlula ubhalo nolwakhiwo olungqongqo. UScalia udityaniswe ukuba waye "ayingowakhi ongqongqo, kwaye akukho-mnye ofanele ukuba abe"; uhamba phambili, athi ulwakhiwo olungqongqo "luluhlobo oluwehlayo lombhalo".

Umbhalo akufunekanga ucaciswe ngokungqongqo, kwaye akufunekanga ucaciswe ngobubele; kufuneka kucaciswe ngokusengqiqweni, ukuqulathe konke okuthethwa yiwo. Abaxhasi bafuna intsingiselo eqhelekileyo yamagama, hayi ukufundwa okumxinwa okanye kokoqobo okungahoyi umongo kunye nokusetyenziswa okuqhelekileyo.

Indlela Abaxhasi Bemibhalo Abayifikelela Ngayo Imibuzo YomGaqo-siseko

Iingcali zokubhala ziphikisa iinkundla zifanele zifunde amazwi ombhalo osemthethweni njengalo naliphi na ilungu eliqhelekileyo leKhomishini. Bakhangela intsingiselo "yokuba umntu osengqiqweni uzakuqokelelwa kumbhalo womthetho". Oku kujoliswe kwiinjongo eziqhelekileyo ukulungiselela ulwamkelo nokunyanzelwa ekutolikeni kwezahlulelo.

Lo mbhali akanikezi xabiso kwizixhobo zembali yowiso-mthetho xa ezama ukuqinisekisa intsingiselo yombhalo. Oku kwahlula ukubhalwa kwemibhalo kwezinye iindlela zokucacisa ezinokujonga iingxelo zeekomiti, iingxoxo zomgangatho, okanye ezinye izinto zokuqonda iinjongo zomthetho.

Amalungisa asoloko exhomekeke kumbhalo ohambisana nezinye iindlela zokutolika umGaqo-siseko. Inkundla iza kusoloko ikhangela kumbhalo kuqala ngaphambi kokuba ijonge ezinye imithombo ezinokuba nentsingiselo, yenza ukuba ukubhalwa kwemibhalo kube yisiqalo kwanakubagwebi abangazigqali njengabaxhasi ngokungqongqo abachaphazelekayo bemibhalo.

Iimpikiswano Zokuthetha Nokuchasa Ukubhala

Abaxhasi bathi ukubhalwa kwemibhalo kuthintela abagwebi ekugqibeni amatyala ngokweembono zabo zomthetho, nto leyo ekhokelela ekuxelwe kwangaphambili kwemigwebo. Ngokubhekisa kwintsingiselo eqhelekileyo yombhalo, abachazi bemibhalo bathi banika indlela ecacileyo nengathathi cala.

Noko ke, abahlalutyi bathi ukubhalwa kombhalo kusenokuba nzima kakhulu kwaye kungasilela ukuphendula iinjongo ezibanzi kunye nomongo wemiqathango. Ukugxininisa okukhethekileyo kumbhalo ngamanye amaxesha kungakhokelela kwiziphumo ezibonakala zichasene nesakhiwo somGaqo-siseko wonke kunye neenjongo.

Isiseko sokwakha: Ukuqwalasela umsebenzi wesakhelo opheleleyo somGaqo-siseko

Isakhiwo simela enye indlela ebalulekileyo yokutolika umGaqo-siseko, leyo ijonge ngaphaya kolungiselelo lomntu ukuqwalasela indlela yokwenziwa nokwakhiwa komGaqo-siseko. Le ndlela ihlola indlela amacala awahlukene ngayo umGaqo-siseko adibana ngayo kunye noko kutyhilwayo ngomGaqo-siseko.

Indlela Yokwakha

Ukucaciswa kokwakha kubandakanya ukukhupha imigaqo yomgaqo-siseko kwisakhiwo somGaqo-siseko kunye nolwalamano olumiswayo phakathi kwamaqumrhu awahlukeneyo karhulumente. Kunokuba ijolise ingqalelo kuphela kumalungiselelo athile ombhalo, izakhiwo zihlolisisa isiseko sobume esidalwe ngumGaqo-siseko, kuquka ukwahlulwa kwamagunya, urhulumente, kunye nenkqubo yokuhlola kunye nolungelelwaniso.

Le ndlela iyaqonda ukuba umGaqo-siseko udala inkqubo entsonkothileyo karhulumente enamasebe amaninzi kumgangatho worhulumente norhulumente. Ulwalamano phakathi kwala maqumrhu, kunye nemigaqo esekelwe kwindlela yawo eyakhiwe ngayo, lunako ukwazisa ukucaciswa komGaqo-siseko kwanaxa amalungiselelo athile ombhalo edibeneyo okanye engathi hayi kwimibuzo ethile.

Iinkqubo zeSicwangciso sokuLawula

Iimpikiswano ezisisiseko ziye zabaluleke ngokukhethekileyo kwiimeko ezibandakanya ukwahlulwa kwamagunya nolawulo. Ngokomzekelo, imibuzo ephathelele ilungelo eliphezulu, amagunya okuvelela, nemida yegunya lesizwe iye yaconjululwa ngokubhekisele kwimigaqo yesakhiwo kunokuba ichazwe ngokungqalileyo kumbhalo okhethekileyo womgaqo-siseko.

Indlela yokwakha ingenza ezinye iindlela zokucacisa. Ijaji ingaqala ngombhalo, ijonge intsingiselo yokuqala, ize iqwalasele ukuba utoliko oluthile luyavisisana na nesakhiwo somGaqo-siseko jikelele kunye nolwalamano olumiswayo phakathi kwamaziko karhulumente.

Ukungatyhileki: Ukuqwalasela Imiphumo Esebenzisekayo

Iindlela ezisetyenziswayo ekuchazeni umGaqo-siseko zigxininisa imiphumo esebenzisekayo yokukhetha izinto ezahlukeneyo. Kunokuba zijoliswe kuphela kokubhaliweyo, intsingiselo, okanye isiseko, izazi ngenkcazelo eyahlukileyo ziqwalasela indlela eziya kusebenza ngayo nendlela eziya kusebenza ngayo nemiphumo eziya kuba nayo kwibutho labantu.

Indlela Engaqhelekanga

Utoliko lwezibonelelo lubandakanya ukuvavanywa kokubaluleka kofundo olwahlukileyo lomgaqo-siseko. Abagwebi abasebenzisa le ndlela baqwalasela oothunywashe abafana nokusebenza, iziphumo zentlalo, kunye neziphumo zehlabathi zokwenene zezigqibo zabo. Le ndlela inxulunyaniswa ngokusondeleyo nendlela yokufikelela komGaqo-siseko ophilayo, njengoko zombini zigxininisa ukuhambelana neemeko zangoku.

Iingcali zezonyango zithi ukutolika ngomgaqo - siseko akunakuba yinto nje ezenzekelayo okanye kubangelwa yimiphumo.

Ukugxekwa Kobuqhetseba

Abahlalutyi botoliko lwendlela yokuchaza bathi inika abagwebi ubulumko obukhulu kwaye ibavumela ukuba banyanzelise iinketho zabo zomthetho phantsi koluvo lomgaqo-siseko. Ngokubhekisa ingqalelo kwiziphumo kunokubhala okanye intsingiselo yantlandlolo, ukusetyenziswa komthetho nokuziphendulela kolawulo lobudemokhrasi.

Abanye baphikisa ngelithi uphando olucacileyo luxhomekeke kwimibandela engaphephekiyo kwaye ludidana. Okubonakala ngathi yimiphumo eluncedo kwenye ijaji kusenokubonakala kuyingozi komnye, ukwenza ukuba ukulungelelanisa izinto kube lukhokelo olungathembekiyo kwintsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko.

Enye Indlela Yokutolika

Ngaphandle kweengcamango eziphambili ezichazwe ngasentla, ezinye iindlela eziliqela ezinokuchazwa zifanele zikhankanywe. Ezi ndlela maxa wambi zisetyenziswa ngokudityaniswa neendlela eziphambili okanye ezisetyenziswayo kwiintlobo ezithile zemibuzo yomgaqo-siseko.

Ubalo

IPublifivism ijonge kwiinjongo eziphantsi kommiselo osisiseko womgaqo-siseko. Kunokuba ijonge nje kuphela kumbhalo okanye kulwazi lokuqala, abachazi-polishi babuza ukuba yeyiphi ingxaki ilungiselelo elithile elicetyiselwe ukuthetha ngayo nendlela ekufuneka lichazwe ngayo ukuzalisekisa loo njongo. Le ndlela iyabelana ngento efanayo ne-pragmat kodwa igxininisa kakhulu kwiinjongo zomGaqo-siseko kunokuba igxininise kwiinjongo zenkqubo zangoku.

Ukufunda Ngokuziphatha

Bambi abaphengululi baxhasa ukufundwa komGaqo-siseko ngokokuziphatha, ochaza imigaqo engekho ngqiqweni yomgaqo-siseko ngokuqwalasela eyona ngcamango ilungileyo yokuziphatha neyopolitiko. Le ndlela inxulumene ngokukhethekileyo nesithandi sobulumko uRonald Dworkin, owathi amalungiselelo omgaqo - siseko aqulethe imigaqo yokuziphatha afanele atolikwe ukuze kucaciswe okona kuqondwa kakuhle kwemigaqo.

Abahlalutyi bokufunda ngokuziphatha bathi ivumela abagwebi ukuba banyanzelise iimbono zabo zokuziphatha kwaye ithobe idemokhrasi. Abaxhasi baphikisa ngelithi umGaqo-siseko ngokwawo ubandakanya imigaqo yokuziphatha kwaye ukutolika kwayo kufuna ukuqiqa ngokuziphatha.

Uqhelaniso neStar Decis

Imfundiso yokujongwa kwamehlo decis()) umgaqo wokuba iinkundla zimele zilandele izigqibo zazo zangaphambili, zidlala indima ebalulekileyo ekutolikeni komgaqo-siseko kungakhathaliseki ukuba yiyiphi indlela ephambili ethandwa yijaji. Udidi lwezakhono lunika uzinzo nokuxelwa kwangaphambili komthetho wesiseko somthetho, nangona abagwebi bengavumelani ngokobungakanani bezigqibo ezimele zifunyanwe, ingakumbi xa zinokugqitywa ngokuphosakeleyo.

Indima yemizekelo idala uxinezeleko kumalungu oqobo, kufuneka agqibe ukuba alandele imizekelo esenokungqubana nentsingiselo yantlandlolo. Abanye abaxhasi bakudala baphikisana ngokunamathela ngokuqinileyo kwimizekelo nangona kukho inkxalabo yoqobo, ngelixa abanye bekulungele kakhulu ukubhukuqa imizekeliso abayijonga njengengavisisaniyo nentsingiselo yantlandlolo yoMgaqo-siseko.

Indima Yokutolika UmGaqo-siseko Kulawulo-melo LwaseMerika

Ingxoxo ngenkcazelo yomGaqo-siseko ayingonto nje ethethwayo, kodwa inentsingiselo enzulu kulawulo-demokhrasi lwaseMerika nakumthetho. Iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokutolika zibonisa imibono eyahlukeneyo yokugweba ngokusemthethweni, ukwahlula amagunya, kunye nolwalamano phakathi komthetho nezobupolitika.

Umthetho ogwebayo noLawulo lwedemokhrasi

Omnye umbuzo ophambili kwiingxoxo zokutolikwa komGaqo-siseko umalunga nelungelo lokuhlola ngokwalo ikomiti. Kwidemokhrasi, kutheni abagwebi abangakhethwanga befanele babe namandla okuphelisa imithetho edluliselwa ngabameli abanyuliweyo? Iingcamango ezahlukeneyo ezitolikayo zinikela iimpendulo ezahlukeneyo kulo mbuzo.

Izazi zoqobo ziphikisa ngelithi uhlolo lomthetho luvumelekile xa abagwebi benyanzelisa intsingiselo yantlandlolo yomGaqo-siseko, eyamkelwa ngokwedemokhrasi ngokusetyenziswa koomatshini. AbaLawuli bomgaqo-siseko abaphilayo baphikisa ngelithi ukufaneleka kuvela ekumkelweni ngokuqhubekayo kwemigaqo yomgaqo-siseko ngabantu baseMelika kunye nokuguquka komthetho womgaqo-siseko ngeendlela zomthetho omnye.

Inkqubo yoHlomelo noTshintsho loMgaqo-siseko

UmGaqo-siseko unika inkqubo yokulungisa ngokusesikweni kwiGatya V, efuna inkxaso egqithisileyo kwiBhunga kunye nokuhlatywa kweentambo ngamaphondo amathathu anesine. Le nkqubo inzima ngabom iphakamisa imibuzo malunga nendlela intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko emele itshintshe ngayo ekuhambeni kwexesha.

Izazi zoqobo zithi utshintsho lomgaqo-siseko kufuneka lwenzeke kuphela ngokulungisa okusesikweni, lugcine ukufaneleka kwedemokhrasi kombhalo womGaqo-siseko. AbaLawuli bomGaqo-siseko abaphilayo baphendula ngokuthi inkqubo yokulungisa kunzima kakhulu kwaye utshintsho lomgaqo-siseko ngokutolikwa luyimfuneko kwaye lusemthethweni.

Imilinganiselo Yezobupolitika Yokutolika Imfundiso

Ukutolikwa komGaqo-siseko kuye kwaya kusiba nokungacaci, kwiindlela ezahlukeneyo zokutolika ezisoloko zinxulunyaniswa neengcamango ezithile zezobupolitika. Ukwenziwa komphambili ngokuqhelekileyo kunxulunyaniswa nokungaguquguquki komthetho-siseko, ngoxa ukuphila ngomgaqo-siseko kuxhaphakile kakhulu phakathi kwabagwebi nabaphengululi abakhululekileyo. Noko ke, ezi manyano azinanto ipheleli, kwaye iindlela zokutolika zinokukhokelela kwiziphumo ezingalindelekilenga.

Ukucaciswa kwengcamango yokutolika kubangela ixhala lokuba ezi ndlela zithintele ukugweba okanye zinikela nje isigqumo sokuphendula xa kusenziwa izigqibo zezobupolitika.

Impikiswano yeli xesha kunye nophuhliso lwakutshanje

Ukutolikwa komGaqo-siseko kuyaqhubeka kuguquka, kunye neengxoxo ezintsha ezingokwesithethe kunye neengxoxo eziqhubekayo ngokuphathelele ukusebenza kwazo. Izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo yakutshanje zibalaselise ukubaluleka kwezi ngxoxo zengcinga.

Inkundla Ephakamileyo Yangoku

INkundla ePhakamileyo yangoku iquka abagwebi abaliqela abachaza njengezazi zoqobo okanye abahlalutyi bemibhalo, besenza ezi ndlela zichaphazeleke ngokukhethekileyo kumthetho wezomGaqo-siseko wexeshana. Noko ke, kwanabagwebi abanokuzinikela kwinkqubano yobuGaqo-siseko basenokungavumelani ngokusetyenziswa kwayo kwiimeko ezithile.

Izigqibo zeNkundla kwimimandla enjengelungelo lompu, ukuqhomfa, inkululeko yonqulo, kunye nomthetho wolawulo zibonise indlela eyahluke ngayo indlela yokutolika enokuthi ikhokelele kwiziphumo ezahlukeneyo. La matyala abonisa ukuba ukhetho lwendlela yokuchaza asiyomfundo nje kuphela kodwa ineziphumo zokwenene kumalungelo omgaqo-siseko kunye namagunya karhulumente.

Utshintsho Olutsha Nendlela Yokuhamba

Abanye abaphengululi baye bacebisa iindlela ezidityanisiweyo ezidibanisa iingcamango ezahlukeneyo. Ngokomzekelo, "ingcamango ephilayo yantlandlolo" izama ukudibanisa ingqiqo yemvelaphi neyomGaqo-siseko ephilayo ngokwahlula phakathi kwenkcazelo yomGaqo-siseko (ukuchaza intsingiselo yantlandlolo) kunye nolwakhiwo lomgaqo-siseko (ukusebenzisa loo ntsingiselo kwiimeko ezithile).

Ezi ndlela zidityanisiweyo ziyaqonda ukuba ukutolikwa komgaqo - siseko kuntsonkothile yaye akukho ndlela inye enokuyifanele yonke imibuzo engokomgaqo - siseko.

Izicelo Ezisebenzisekayo Zabemi Nabenzi Bemigaqo

Ukuqonda intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko akubalulekile kumagqwetha nabagwebi kuphela kodwa nakwabemi nabaqulunqi bemithetho. Indlela yokutolika eyamkelwa ziinkundla ichaphazela amalungelo omGaqo-siseko, imida yegunya likarhulumente nesigqibo semibuzo yezopolitiko.

Impembelelo Yamalungelo Omntu Ngamnye

Iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokucacisa zingakhokelela kwizigqibo ezahlukeneyo ngokuphathelele amalungelo omGaqo-siseko. Ngokomzekelo, abo bafunda imvelaphi kunye nabaxhasi bomgaqo-siseko abaphilayo basenokungavumelani enoba umGaqo-siseko ukhusela amalungelo obuqu kusini na, oko kufuna ukulingana, okanye indlela imigaqo ekhululekileyo yokuthetha esebenza ngayo kubugcisa obutsha.

Oku kungavisisani kuneziphumo ezisebenzisekayo kwimiba esukela kumalungelo okuzala ukuya kumanani obuqu ukuya kungenelelo lwemiqathango yemali. Amalungelo omgaqo-siseko wabemi asenokukhula okanye athathelwe ingqalelo kuxhomekeka kwindlela yokutolika ekhoyo kwiinkundla.

Uxanduva lokwakhiwa koRhulumente kunye namagunya

Ukutolikwa komGaqo-siseko kukwachaphazela imibuzo ephathelele isakhiwo sikarhulumente nokusasazwa kwamandla phakathi kwamaziko awahlukeneyo. Iingxoxo ngaphaya kwamandla olawulo oluphezulu, igunya lombutho, kunye nolawulo lorhulumente zidla ngokuphethukela kwimibuzo echaza intsingiselo yantlandlolo yomGaqo-siseko okanye indlela emele ivumelane neemeko zale mihla.

Kubenzi benkqubo, kubalulekile ukuba baziqonde ezi mpikiswano zicacisayo ukuze kumiselwe umthetho oza kumelana nokuhlolisiswa komgaqo - siseko nokuze kuqwalaselwe indlela iinkundla ezinokulawula ngayo kwiimbambano ezithandabuzayo iigunya likarhulumente.

Oovimba Bokufunda Okungakumbi

Abo banomdla wokuphanda utoliko lomgaqo-siseko ngobunzulu obuphezulu, oovimba abaninzi bayafumaneka. ISiko loMgaqo-siseko wesizwe inika izinto zokufundisa kunye neengxoxo phakathi kwabaphengululi abamele iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokuchaza. IChonsition Ancotion[, epapashwe yiThala leencwadi leBrithamshela-ngquthela, inikeza uhlalutyo olunzulu lwemiqathango kunye neenkcazelo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo.

Oolindixesha abanjenge - Harvard Law Review, Yale Law Journal, neStanford Law Review bapapasha amanqaku athetha ngenkcazelo engokomGaqo-siseko. Iimbono zeNkundla Ephakamileyo zinikela ukuqonda ngendlela eyahlukileyo yokusebenzisa ubulungisa kwiimeko ezicacileyo.

Ukuze kuqondwe ngokunzulu ubuNtu bendalo, abaphengululi abanjengamaRandy Barnett, uLawrence Solum noJaji wamva uAntonin Scalia banikela ubuchule bokuzikhusela kule ndlela. Ukuze ufumane iimbono ezingakumbi ngokuphila komGaqo-siseko, iincwadi zikaDavid Strauss, uJack Balkin, noJaji wamva weJaji uWilliam Brennan zinikela ingqiqo ebalulekileyo.

Isiphelo: Ukubaluleka Okuqhubekayo Kokucaciswa KomGaqo-siseko

Umbuzo wendlela yokuchaza umGaqo-siseko uhlala ungenye yezona mibandela zibalulekileyo neziphikiswayo kumthetho waseMerika. Indlela ezahlukeneyo zokutolika magama zokwenza intsingiselo yento ekhoyo ```ukungachazi siseko'', ukusetyenziswa komGaqo-siseko, ukubhalwa kwemibhalo, ukuma, ukusetyenziswa kwesakhiwo, iimbono ezahlukeneyo ngokusisiseko malunga nendalo yomthetho, indima yabagwebi, kunye nolwalamano phakathi kwangoku.

Akukho ndlela yokucacisa ifikelele ekufumaneni ulwamkeleko olukhoyo jikelele, kwaye iingxoxo phakathi kwezi ndlela ziyaqhubeka zibumba umthetho womGaqo-siseko kunye nedemokhrasi yaseMerika. Ukuqonda ezi ndlela zahlukeneyo kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofuna ukuqonda indlela umGaqo-siseko osebenza ngayo njengoxwebhu oluphilayo olulawula uhlanga lwangoku ngoxa luhlala lusekelwe kumbhalo obhalwe ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini ezidluleyo.

Njengoko ibutho liqhubeka liguquka kwaye kuvela imingeni emitsha, impikiswano ngenkcazelo yomGaqo-siseko iya kuqhubeka ngokungathandabuzekiyo. Indlela yokutolika ekhoyo kwiinkundla izakunceda ekufumaniseni umlinganiselo wamalungelo omGaqo-siseko, imida yegunya likarhulumente, nentsingiselo yemigaqo esisiseko efana nenkululeko, ukulingana, kunye nedemokhrasi. Ngenxa yesi sizathu, ukutolikwa komgaqo-siseko akuseyo nje impikiswano yomthetho kodwa kungumbandela obalulekileyo kuwo onke amaMelika.

Nokuba ubani uvumela ukugxininiswa kobuTshazi bokuqala kwintsingiselo emiselweyo, ukuvumelana nomgaqo-siseko, ukugxininisa kokubhaliweyo kulwimi oluqhelekileyo, okanye ukudityaniswa kwezi ndlela, ukuxabana nale ngxoxo kubalulekile ukuze ube ngummi onolwazi kunye nokuba nenxaxheba enzulu kwidemokhrasi yaseMerika. Ukutolikwa komGaqo-siseko kubumba imithetho esiphila phantsi kwayo, amalungelo esinawo, kunye norhulumente esiwenzayo, ukwenziwa kwento efanelwe kukufundwa nokucaciswa ngokucokisekileyo.