Imeko Yembali YomGaqo-siseko

UMgaqo-siseko weUnited States, owagunyaziswa ngo-1788, umi njengomthetho ophakamileyo welizwe kunye netsheyina lolawulo lwaseMelika. Ukuyixabisa ngokupheleleyo indlela edalwe ngayo, kuqala umntu kufuneka aqonde iingxaki ezinzulu ajamelana nazo uhlanga oluselula emva kwemfazwe yendaleko. Uxwebhu lokuqala olulawulayo, Artticles zobuNxulumani, lwadala ukudityaniswa okungalawulekiyo kwamazwe olawulo norhulumente ombindindi obuthathaka.

Urhulumente ophantsi kwala Manqaku wayengenalo igunya lokuhlawula irhafu, ulawulo lwezorhwebo lwamazwe ngamazwe, okanye ukuphakamisa umkhosi wesizwe. Wayengenakunyanzelisa imithetho yakhe okanye anyanzele amazwe ukuba athobele izivumelwano. Isiphumo saba yingxaki yezoqoqosho, ukungalawuleki kwemicimbi yangaphakathi, kunye nesiphithiphithi sangaphakathi. Izindlu zowiso-mthetho zashicilela imali yazo, zamisa imiqobo yokuthengiselana, kwaye ngokufuthi azizihoyanga izicelo zeBhunga lesizwe zemali. Phakathi koo1780, irepublicki entsha yayisele ikho ekudimeni.

Incam ephononongayo yavela nge 's Revusion's ngo1786-1787. Abalimi baseMassachusetts, bethweswe umthwalo yityala elikrweliweyo kunye nerhafu karhulumente enzima, basebenzisa izixhobo zokuvala izindlu zenkundla kwaye bathintele ii-aseclouts. Urhulumente wesizwe wayengenamandla okuphelisa imvukelo; yayingenamkhosi kwaye ingenamali yokunyusa enye. Imvukelo yaphela ekugqibeleni yapheliswa ngumkhosi wesizwe oxhaswa ngasese, kodwa yabangela ukuba ivuswe kwakhona kumhlaba wezobupolitika. Iinkokeli ezifana noJames Magdate, uAlekson, noGeorge Washington baqonda ukuba iingcebiso zazingabuyiselwa ngezixhobo ezininzi.

Kwimpendulo, iNgqungquthela yeNkqutyana yeNkqutyana yeQumrhu yahlanganisana ePhiladelphia ngoMeyi 1787. Abathunywa abasuka kumazwe alishumi elinesibini (Isiqithi sangavumi ukuba nenxaxheba) bachitha iinyanga ezine bebethelela isakhiwo esitsha sikarhulumente. Uxwebhu oluphumezeyo lwaba lungcelele lwentelelo olunobuchule eyalulungelelanisa ulwamkelo lwamazwe amakhulu namancinane, amaphondo asemntla nawasezantsi, kunye nabameli begunya elinamandla eliphakathi kunye nabo babesoyika. UmGaqo-siseko watyiselwa ngoSeptemba 17, 1787, kwaye emva kwengxoxo ekrala, lwasebenza ngo179.

Imigaqo Esisiseko: Ukwahlukana Kwamagunya Nomanyano

UmGaqo-siseko waseka ulwahlulo olwakhiwe kwimigaqo emibini engundoqo: ukwahlula amagunya kunye ne-"FLT] federalist[. Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya kwahlula urhulumente wesizwe ube ngamasebe amathathu ahlukeneyo, ngalinye linemisebenzi yalo ekhethekileyo. Umanyano lwahlula amandla phakathi korhulumente wesizwe norhulumente, ludala ulawulo oluphindiweyo. Le nkqubo idityaniweyo yenzelwe ukunqanda na into enye ekhoyo ekufumaneni igunya elininzi kakhulu nokugcina urhulumente esondelelene nabantu.

James Madison, ku [[QL:0] Uluhlu lwezikhundla uNo. 51, waphikisa ngokudumileyo ukuba ukwahlulwa kwamagunya kwakubalulekile ekulawuleni ukuxhatshazwa korhulumente: “Ukuba abantu babezizithunywa zezulu, akukho rhulumente obekuyafuneka. Ukuba iingelosi bezingalawula abantu, okanye ulawulo lwangaphandle okanye lwangaphakathi kurhulumente beluza kuba yimfuneko. Ngoko ke uMgaqo-siseko unika isebe ngalinye ngendlela yokuxhathisa ukungenelelana kwabanye, lo gama unika bona iimbopheleleko ezidibeneyo eziya kusebenza kunye.

Umanyano, ngeli xesha, lumiselwe ngoludwe lwamandla akhethekileyo orhulumente wesizwe kwicandelo I, iCandelo 8, kunye nesabelo sawo onke amanye amagunya kumazwe kuMgaqo-nkqubo weTenth Amement. Olu lwahlulo luye lwaba ngumthombo wengxoxo eqhubekayo kunye noluvo-ligalelo, kodwa lusaqhubeka luluphawu oluchazayo lolawulo lwaseMelika.

Ukwakhiwa koRhulumente omiselwe ngumGaqo-siseko

Isebe Elisemthethweni: Inqaku I

Abenzi besakhelo benza isebe lowiso-mthetho libe linqaku lokuqala nelinalwazi oluninzi lomGaqo-siseko, elibonakalisa inkolelo yabo yokuba iKhomishini ifanele ibe lisebe elilawulayo. Inqaku Lenza indlu yowiso-mthetho ye-bimeyal: Indlu yabameli kunye [[FLT]] ne [FLT]] ISATE ]. Le sakhiwo sasingukulalanisa phakathi kwamazwe amakhulu (okukhethwa ngabemi) kunye namaziko amancinane (okufuna umelo olulinganayo). Isiphumo saba ngukungavumelani okugqithisileyo , eyamisela indlu esekelwe kubemi kunye nendlu ye-Camplate ezimbini kunye ne-eator (othi i-sethiyamagethi).

IBhunga linikwe uluhlu lwamagunya adwelisweyo, kuquka amandla erhafu, ukuboleka imali, ukulawula urhwebo oluphakathi kwelizwe kunye namazwe asemzini, ukubhengeza imfazwe, ukuphakamisa nokuxhasa imikhosi, kwaye yenza yonke imithetho “eyimfuneko nefanelekileyo” ekuphumezeni la magunya. i-Necassiary ne-Fathernet Claus (ekwathiwa kwakhona iEllastic Claus) ibisisiseko somgaqo-siseko sokwandisa igunya lorhulumente ngexesha elide.

ezingundoqo zesebe lowiso-mthetho ziquka:

  • Indlu yabameli: Amalungu akhonza amabinzana eminyaka emibini, ewenza aphendule ngqo kwimibutho yawo. Zonke iindleko zemali kufuneka zivele kwindlu.
  • I-Senentate: Amalungu akhonza amabinzana onyaka mthandathu, kunye ne-3-- ngaphezulu kunyulo nyaka ngamnye kwiminyaka emibini. Indlu yeNtlanganiso iqinisekisa ukubotshwa komongameli kwaye yenza izivumelwano ziphinde ziphinde ngevoti ezimbini-3. Ikwazama ukugawula.
  • [[UMTL:0] Amandla okuququzelela: Indlu inamandla okuphela kwamagosa karhulumente (kuquka uMongameli), ngeli xesha iBhunga libamba ukuvavanywa kwaye lingasusa ngevoti ezimbini-ntathu.

Isebe ElinoLawulo Oluphezulu: Inqaku II

Isebe eliphetheyo limiselwe kwiGatya II. Emva kolwazi norhulumente wesizwe obuthathaka phantsi kwe Amanqaku, abalawuli benza enye umongameli njengomphathi oyintloko, ojongene nokuphumeza ngokuthembeka imithetho. UMongameli unyulwa ngokungangqalanga ngapha nangapha kwiKholeji ephakathi kwe-okhentili eqhelekileyo nokhetho oluqhelekileyo lweBhunga.

Amandla kaMongameli aquka:

  • Ukukhonza njengoMlawuli kwiNtloko yemikhosi exhobileyo
  • Ukuxolela amatyala karhulumente (ngaphandle kwakwiimeko ezingagqibeleliyo)
  • Ukwenza izivumelwano (ngamacebiso nokuvuma kwee-asethi ezimbini-ntathu zeBhunga leNtlanganiso)
  • Amagosa karhulumente amisela abagwebi, oothunywashe namalungu eKhabhinethi (okunokuqinisekiswa kweNdlu yeeNtlanganiso)
  • Ukusayina okanye ukukhupha umthetho owiswe yiBhunga

UMongameli onguMongameli onguMongameli weNdlu yeeNtlanganiso (ubeka amavoti okonakalisa iqhina) kwaye ungowokuqala kumgca wokulandelelana. UmGaqo-siseko ukwanika ukususwa koMongameli ngokungathobeli nangokungagunyaziswanga kunye nokuqinisekiswa “ngengqiqo, ukunyotywa, okanye ezinye izigebe-cala eziphezulu kunye nabagwebi abaphezulu.”

Isebe Eligwebayo: Inqaku III

Isebe lejaji lidweliswe kwiGatya III, eliliphi igunya lokugweba kwiNkundla yeNkundla enye kunye neenkundla eziphantsi njenge Congress. UmGaqo-siseko awulichazi inani lamatyala; elo nani limiselwe yiBhunga (ngoku elisithoba). Abagwebi boManyeneyo basebenza ngexesha “lehambo elungileyo,” ngokunempumelelo kubomi, ngaphandle kokuba bangayimiselanga.

Ulawulo lweenkundla zelifa lesizwe lunwebela kumatyala aqukunjelwa phantsi komGaqo-siseko, imithetho yorhulumente, kunye nezivumelwano, kunye neembambano phakathi koorhulumente okanye phakathi kwabemi bomazwe ahlukeneyo. Owona mandla abalulekileyo ejaji angowe-judiary luhlolo olubalulekileyo [[] `igunya lokuvakalisa imithetho okanye izenzo zolawulo ezingavumelaniyo. Ngelinye ixesha lingachazwanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko, eli gunya lamiselwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi .[FLT] burybry v. (18]) kwaye liye laba ligosalelo lomthetho-mthetho-siseko.

Isebe lezomthetho likwaquka iinkundla ezisezantsi zephondo, njengeenkundla zesithili (iinkundla zetyala) kunye neenkundla zesiphaluka zezibheno. Ngokuyintloko iNkundla ePhakamileyo ilawula ukulawulwa kwetyala, amatyala aphakamisa imibuzo ebalulekileyo yomthetho-siseko okanye wesizwe.

Iipeksi Nolungelelwano

Inkqubo ye ijongile kunye nomlinganiselo yinkqubo apho isebe ngalinye lingasikela umda amandla amanye. Asilonqaku elahlukileyo kodwa liphothiwe kuyo yonke umGaqo-siseko. Le nkqubo iqinisekisa ukuba akukho sebe linye elinokulawula kwaye urhulumente usebenza ngokuvumelana nangokulalanisa.

Uvavanyo olungundoqo luquka:

  • Iindlela zomgunyaziso kuMphathiswa: Congress zingayiphazamisa i-veto ye-presidential ngevoti ezimbini ezikwezintathu kuzo zombini izindlu. Ilawula uqingqo-mali kwaye imele ivume ukudibana komongameli kunye nezivumelwano. IBhunga lingamsusa uMongameli okanye abanye amagosa aphezulu.
  • Uvavanyo olusebenzayo kuMthetho: uMongameli angawubeka umthetho. UMongameli ukwanamandla okuhlanganisa okanye okufunxa izivumelwano phantsi kweemeko ezingaqhelekanga. Njengentloko yesikhulu, uMongameli uphembelela ukuphunyezwa kwemithetho.
  • Ukuvavanya okuqulethwe yijaji kumasebe omabini: INkundla ePhakamileyo kunye neenkundla ezisezantsi zikarhulumente zingavakalisa imithetho edluliswa yiBhunga okanye izenzo ezithathwa nguMongameli ngokuhlola okusemthethweni. Noko ke, amandla ejaji alinganiselwe ngesibakala sokuba ayinakuqalisa amatyala; iyakwazi kuphela ukugqiba iimpikiswano ezikhoyo phambi kwayo.
  • Izixhobo kwiJadiary: Congress iyakwazi ukurhoxa kwaye isuse abagwebi borhulumente. IBhunga likwanokucebisa izindululo zomgaqo-siseko ukubhukuqa izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo, kwaye limisela igunya lokulawula iNkundla ePhakamileyo. UMongameli umisela abagwebi, kwaye iNdlu yeeNtlanganiso iyaziqinisekisa, inika impembelelo yezopolitiko kubume beenkundla.

Olu luhlu luntsonkothileyo lwamagunya angenanayo ludala uxinezeleko olunamandla olunyanzela amasebe ukuba axoxwe kwaye alalanise. Njengoko uMadison wabhalayo, “Umdla kufuneka wenziwe ukulwa namabhongo.”

IBhili Yamalungelo: Ukukhusela Umntu Ngamnye Ekhululekile

Enye yeengxoxo ezinzima ngexesha lokudityaniswa komGaqo-siseko yayikukungabikho kwamalungelo. Abachasi-Federali babesoyika ukuba urhulumente onamandla ombindini uza kuyinyanzela inkululeko yabantu ngabanye. Ukukhusela inkululeko, abaxhasi bathembisa ukudibanisa iinzame zokukhusela inkululeko ekhethekileyo. Isiphumo yaba yi Bhill yamalungelo [, ezokuqala ezilishumi eziphenduliweyo kumGaqo-siseko, ezagunyaziswayo ngowe-1791.

IBhili yamaLungelo ibeka imiqathango ecacileyo kumandla karhulumente yaye iqinisekisa amalungelo asisiseko:

  • [[UMGANTLO-MALI: 0] Lokuqala uMphetho-mda: ukhusela inkululeko yonqulo, yokuthetha, yokushicilela, yendibano, nelungelo lokucela urhulumente.
  • [[UMTL:0] Uhlaziyo oluqukunjelweyo: lukhusela ilungelo lokugcina nokuphatha iingalo.
  • Uhlaziyo olupheleleyo: lukhupha amajoni ahlala kwikota yamakhaya ngaphandle kwemvume.
  • [[UMTL: 0] Uhlaziyo lwethu: lukhusela ekuphengululweni okungaqikeleliyo nokuxhuzula; lufuna imfuneko esekelwe kwisizathu esilindelekileyo.
  • UHlaliso lweNtloko lweNtloko: luqinisekisa ukumangalelwa okukhulu kwabachopheli-tyala, lukhusela kwingozi ephindwe kabini kunye nokuzibeka ngokwalo, lufuna inkqubo efunekayo, kwaye luthintela ukuthatha impahla yabucala ngaphandle kwembuyiselo nje.
  • [[UMTL:0] IsiHlalisi-mda se-xxt: iqinisekisa ilungelo lokuchotshelwa kwetyala elikhawulezileyo nelikawonke-wonke, inkundla yabachopheli-mthetho engakhethi khethe, ungquzulwano lwamangqina, kunye nesiluleko.
  • Ukuhlaziywa koMphetho-mda weshumi elinesixhenxe: Ulondoloza ilungelo lokuchotshelwa ngabagwebi kwiimeko zamakhaya.
  • [[UMTL: 0] Ukuhlaziywa koMphetho-mda: Izakhono zokwehlisa ibheyile, iimali zemali, kunye nengqeqesho ezikhohlakeleyo nezingaqhelekanga.
  • [[UMTL:0] UHlaliso lweNqanawa: luqonda ukuba uludwe lwamalungelo athile aluwakhathazi okanye aluwahluli amanye amaqela agcinwe ngabantu.
  • UHlaliso lweNtsimbi: Amagunya angathunyelwanga eUnited States kumaphondo okanye kubantu.

Ekuhambeni kwexesha, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yasebenzisa inkoliso yeBhili yamaLungelo kumazwana nge- imodeli ye-Clause yeSinyusi seshumi elinesine, inkqubo eyaziwa ngokuba “kukuhlaziywa.” Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba oorhulumente bakwayihlonela le nkululeko isisiseko.

UMgaqo-siseko njengoxwebhu oluphilayo: IziHlaziso nokuHlaziywa

UmGaqo-siseko wawuyilelwe ukunyamezela, kodwa abalamli bawo bakuqonda ukufuneka kweenguqu. Inqaku V limisa inkqubo yokulungisa, evumela umGaqo-siseko ukuba utshintshe nohlanga. Utshintsho lungacetywa ngevoti yee-3 ezimbini zezindlu zombini zeBhunga okanye ngendibano ebizwe ngamacawa amabini anesithathu endlu zowiso-mthetho. I-Ratiation ifuna uvumo ngeendlu zowiso-mthetho okanye iindibano ezintathu.

Ukususela ngowe-1789, umGaqo-siseko uye walungiswa waphinda-phinda kangango27. Intengiso yokuqala elishumi (iBhili yamaLungelo) yayiyingqokelela esisiseko. Emva koko inguquko yandisa idemokhrasi, yaphelisa ubukhoboka, kunye namagunya karhulumente asulungekileyo. Ezinye ezona zinto zibalulekileyo zezona:

  • [[UMTL:0]] wesithathu uMphetho-mda (1865): Ubukhoboka obungavumelekanga nobukhoboka obungafunwayo.
  • 14th Amendment (1868): ichazwa ukuba ngummi, iqinisekisa ukukhuselwa okulinganayo kwemithetho, kwaye yandisa inkqubo efunekayo kwizenzo zikarhulumente.
  • 15th Amendment (1870): Ukukhanyelwa kwamalungelo okuvota ngokusekelwe kuhlanga, umbala, okanye imeko yangaphambili yobukhoboka.
  • IsiHlalisi seMpanzi se1919 (20): Amabhinqa amkele ilungelo lokuvota.
  • UHlaziyo lweCandelo lwe 261] (1971: lwathoba ixesha lokuvota ukuya kwi 18.

Ngapha koko, umGaqo-siseko utshintshe ngokusetyenziswa kotoliko oluqhelekileyo, umthetho, nokuqhelisa. Ityala leNkundla ePhakamileyo (]] imarbury v. Madison (uhlolo lweziko-mthetho), [[FLT:]] [FLT]]] [4] MCloch v. Maryland [iimeko ephakamileyo], [[FLT] ibhodi yemfundo yemfundo yezemfundo yezemfundo [FLT]] v.[FLT] [FLT] i-injini ye-[FLT], ne-[FLT]

Uhlengahlengiso Olungundoqo Olwaguqula UmGaqo-siseko

Ngekungekho nokwenzeka ukuba umGaqo-siseko ubungakhange uvumelane neemeko eziliqela ezigxekayo.

Ukulalanisa Okukhulu (Ukulalanisa Okuphakathi)

Amazwe amakhulu ayefuna ukuba ikhokelwa kwiBhunga elisekelwe kubemi (iSicwangciso saseVirginia); amaphondo amancinane afuna umelo olulinganayo (isicwangciso saseNew Jersey). Ulalaniso lwadala indlu yowiso-mthetho: iNdlu yabameli esekelwe kubemi, kunye neNdlu yeeNtsimi enemimeli efanayo kwiphondo ngalinye. Oku kwanelisa omabini amacala kwaye kuselubala olungundoqo lwesebe lemithetho.

Isithathu se-Fith sihlengahlengisa

Amazwe aseMantla ayefuna ukubalelwa abantu abangamakhoboka ukuba bafumane umelo (oluza kubanika izihlalo ezingakumbi endlwini) kodwa lungabi zerhafu. Amaphondo aseMantla aphikisa impikiswano. Ulalaniso lubala abantu abathathu abakwisiqingatha abakhotyokisiweyo ngenxa yokumela kunye nerhafu. Esi sivumelwano sokuziphatha sibi sanika amandla angenakulinganiswa okugcina amagunya kwaye ekugqibeleni satshintshwa yiMiphetho yeSihlalo se-13 neye-14.

Urhwebo Norhwebo Lwamakhoboka

Amaphondo aseMantla wayefuna ukuba iKhomishini ilawule urhwebo lwamanye amazwe kunye nolokuphelisa ukungeniswa kwabantu abangamakhoboka. Amazwe aseMazantsi angavumi. Ukulalanisa kwanika iKhomishini amandla okulawula ezorhwebo kodwa kwalela ukuphazamisana norhwebo lwamakhoboka iminyaka engama-20 (ukuya kutsho kowe-1888). IBhunga lakuvala ngokwenene ukuthunyelwa kwabantu abangamakhoboka emva kokuba ummiselo womgaqo-siseko uphelile.

Umanyano olusebenzayo: Ukulungelelanisa igunya lesiZwe neloRhulumente

Isakhiwo somGaqo-siseko somGaqo-siseko besisoloko silukhuphiswano olunamandla nolukhuphiswano. Ukungagunyazi u-Claus kwiQumrhu VI limisela umGaqo-siseko, imithetho yequ, kunye nezivumelwano ‘ njengoMthetho ongaphezulu kakhulu wezwe,” iijaji zesizwe ukuxhasa ezo mithetho-siseko okanye imithetho engqubanayo. Noko ke, uLawulo lweshumi lamagunya amapolisa lugcina umgangatho obanzi kumazwe, kuquka igunya lemfundo, urhulumente wasekuhlaleni, impilo kawonke, kunye norhwebo lwasekuhlaleni.

Ekuhambeni kwexesha, ulungelelwano lwamandla luye lwatshintsha. Ixesha elitsha loDawula labona ulwandiso olukhulu lwegunya likarhulumente phantsi kolawulo lweChwethezo lukaClaus. IMbutho yaMalungelo e-Civil uxhomekeke ekungeneleni kwesizwe ekupheliseni i-paration-point. Kutshanje, iingxoxo ngolawulo lwempilo, umgaqo-bume, namalungelo okuvota aye avavanya imida yamandla esizwe nawaseburhulumenteni. UmGaqo-siseko unika isiseko wezi ngxoxo eziqhubekayo.

Ukuhlolisiswa Kwezogwebo Nendima Yeenkundla

Akukho gunya lejaji elibaluleke kakhulu kune uhlolo lwephondo. . [FLT]] Marbury v. Madison (1803), iJaji eyintloko uJohn Marshall yagxininisa ukuba “kugxininisa iphondo kunye nomsebenzi wesebe lejaji ukuchaza ukuba nguphi umthetho.” Esi sigqibo saseka iNkundla ePhakamileyo njengenkqu yentsingiselo yesiseko somgaqo-siseko. Ukususela ngoko, iNkuquluko ibuye iphinde yawa kumawaka emithetho nezenzo zolawulo, ijonge phantsi ezo zifumana zingahambini.

Uhlolo lwezomthetho luye lwasetyenziswa ukukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye (umz., [[FLT: 0] Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo ibetha i-palbain yesikolo, ukuchaza umlinganiselo wamandla karhulumente (umz., [[FLT: 2]]] Mcloch v. Maryland[[FLT]] [[FLT]]] iqinisekisa amandla aqikelelweyo), nokuvavanya ukuba abalawuli abalawuli abaphezulu abamele bamiselwe ngemithetho esemthethweni. Kodwa ukumiswa kwe-Sriginits.

Isiphelo: Umsebenzi ohlala uhleli weGunya likaRhulumente

UMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States waseka inkqubo eyomeleleyo nethambileyo yegunya likarhulumente eye yanyamezela ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini. Ngokwahlula amagunya phakathi kwamasebe amathathu, ukwenza inkqubo yorhulumente, ukuxilonga nokulinganisela, nokukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye ngeBhili yamaLungelo, abalawuli bezixhobo basungula uxwebhu olukwazi ukukhokela uhlanga kutshintsho olunzulu. Ubuchule boMgaqo-siseko bokuziqhelanisa nokulungisa nokutolika kwezomthetho buye baluvumela ukuba lukhule nelizwe, ukusuka kwiRiphabliki etsha ukuya kugunya lehlabathi lonke.

Ukufundwa okubhekele phaya kwezi mixholo, jonga ukhuphelo logcino-lwazi lohlanga lomGaqo-siseko, uhlole iZiko loMgaqo-siseko wesizwe elisebenzisanayo [, uze uphinde uhlole izinto zokufundisa zendlu yeBhunga kumGaqo-siseko [].