Uxanduva olungundoqo lolawulo lulungelelanisa igunya elifunekayo lesizwe nenkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Siqinisekisa njani ukuba abo banikwe igunya abawusebenzisi kakubi? Lo mbuzo uphendulwa ngembali yendaleko yegunya likarhulumente, ibali elikwiminyaka elingamawaka. Ukusuka kwimithetho yamandulo ukuya kwisiseko somgaqo-siseko sangoku, uqhutyelo lokunyanzela igunya lumela isiseko sophuhliso lwedemokhrasi. Ukuqonda le ndlela asiyondlela nje yemfundo ephambili; kubalulekile ekulondolozeni inkululeko enzima kwixesha elinzima lehlabathi.

Isiseko Samandulo Semida Karhulumente

Ingcamango yokumisela amandla angaphambili alawula idemokhrasi yale mihla ngeenkulungwane. Uvavanyo lokuqala lokwenziwa komthetho lwamiswa ukuba kwanabona balawuli banamandla babephantsi komgangatho ophezulu wemithetho esesikweni okanye iseti yemithetho edityanisiweyo. Ezi ziseko zamandulo zanika iibloko zokwakha ezisekelwe kwingcamango yamva yomgaqo-siseko.

Imithetho Ebhaliweyo Nesiko Elisesikweni EMesopotamiya

Kumazwe amandulo ase-Mesopotamia, ikhodi kaHammurabi (i-circa 1754 BCE) yayimele ukutsiba okuphezulu phambili. Ngoxa izigwebo zayo zazinzima ngemigangatho yangoku, umbhalo wazo kwi-stale kawonke-wonke wawuthetha ukuba umthetho wawunokwaziwe kwaye usetyenziswa ngokungqinelanayo kubukhosi. Oku kwawuthintela ulwelo oluzenzekelayo lwejajingi noluphezulu. Umgaqo we- trionis [ (umthetho wempindelo) wamisela ummiselo olinganayo kwimpindelo, obalulekileyo othintela ukunyuka kwempindeko. Ikhowudi ayizange iyile idemokhrasitiki, kodwa idiwe mgaqo obalulekileyo omele ulungelene nomthetho olawulayo endaweni yokulawula.

Ingcamango YesiHebhere Yomthetho Ophakamileyo

IBhayibhile yesiHebhere yaqalisa ingcamango yeenguqulelo yokuba umnqophiso wobuthixo wadibanisa umlawuli kanye njengale nto ithethwayo. Umprofeti uSamuweli wawalumkisa amaSirayeli ngeengozi zobukumkani obuphezulu (1Samuel 8), echaza indlela ukumkani azakubophelela ngayo oonyana babo, athathe iintombi zabo, athabathe amasimi abo. ITorah yawabeka ngokucacileyo imida kukumkani: babengaziqwebelanga ubutyebi obuninzi, abafazi, okanye amahashe (Deutronomy 17:14-20). Le ngcamango yomthetho ophezulu " inikwe ummiselo ophezulu" owenziwe wadlula kwaye ulinganiselwe yabalawuli basemhlabeni yayinempembelelo kakhulu. Ngaphezu koko, inkqubo ye [FLD:2] [FLT] [FLT] [5] [5] [5]

Ulawulo-melo lwaseAthene: Ukuziphendulela Nokuthabatha Inxaxheba

I-Athene yeSiladi yeBCE yenkulungwane yesihlanu emiselwe urhulumente ngokuthabatha inxaxheba ngqo kunye nokuziphendulela. Iindlela ezingundoqo ziquke imo-mvaba [ (ukukhetha okuqhelekileyo) kwii-ofisi zikawonke wonke, okuthintela ukusekwa kodidi olusisigxina olulawulayo. [[FLT:]] imida engekho siseko [[[FLT]]] [[FLT]]] yanyanzelwa, yaye akukho mmi uluntu wayenokuyibamba kabini. [[FT] uqhelisostacracs[[FLT:] [5] usebenza njengokhuseleko, ukuvumela ukuba abemi abafuduki abatshakazi abangaboniyo baluthelekele uloyiko kwimeko. [iiigraful-ogne] [utheful, i-onke i-G.[5]

IRoman Republican: Imigca, Ukulungelelana, NeVito

IRiphabliki yeRoman (50-27 BCE) yalungisa inkqubo yesixhobo sokudlala enzelwe ukunqanda ulawulo lwe-autocracy. Amandla ahlulwe phakathi kwegunya eliphetheyo [[FLT: 0]] iChonuls (isibini sanyulwa, ngasinye sibambe amandla ahlukeneyo), isigqeba sephondo [[FFFF:] [FUN]] [FUNT]] [umqulu wePFUN] [FUN] [FUM] [uhlu oluphezulu] [unyaka] [unyaka] kunye negunya elininzi [uhlulo] lwezi: [uhlulo] olunamandla aziwayo, [[10] kunye nelonke lwamandla aqhelekileyo] [uhlulo lwase-FUFUT] [ult: [umphane] [umphane] [uhlu lwamandla onamandla aphezulu] [uhluyonke] [uhlu lwamandla aphezulu] [uhlu lwamandla aphezulu: [unyuke] [uhlu] [uhlu] [uhlu lwa

AmaXesha Aphakathi Nokwazisa Ngamalungelo Esiko

Ixesha lamaxesha aphakathi, ngokufuthi elaliphawulwa ngemithetho engqongqo yabefundisi namalungelo obuthixo, ngokuchaseneyo latyala ezinye zezona mbewu zibalulekileyo zokuthintela umGaqo-siseko, ingakumbi eNgilani. Ingxoxo eqhubekayo phakathi kookumkani, iCawa, kunye nabasemagunyeni yavelisa imiqathango emiselwe imigaqo.

IMagna Carta (1215)

IMagna Carta ihlala ingumlinganiselo othe kratya kumandla apheleleyo. Inyanzeliswe kuKumkani John ngomnqongo wemibutho evukelayo ngowe-1215, ukuphumeza kwayo okungundoqo kwakumisela ukuba ukumkani wayengawudluli umthetho. Ngoxa umthetho omkhulu wemithetho-siseko wawuthetha ngentengiso zelifantal, amabinzana amabini athatyathwe kwintsingiselo yembali. [[FLT:] Amalungelo amabini athatyathwe ngokomthetho okhululekileyo okanye ahlulwe amalungelo akhe okanye izinto zakhe... ngaphandle komgwebo osemthethweni welizwe lakhe okanye lomthetho. [[FLT]] [iiindlela] ebekwe i-Checterfate] [[12] isiseko sokuzinziso somthetho sokulawula, [[12] [FFF] i-Fognomes siseko senkqubo elungileyo yomthetho-onke, kodwa engekho siseko somthetho womthetho wakuqala, umgaqo womthetho ogunyazwe siseko somthetho wakuqala.[125][12] [ekhonyukelelwe , kodwa umgaqo womthetho womthetho oqhelekileyo

Uphuhliso Lomthetho Oqhelekileyo

Utshintsho olungokwasemthethweni lukaHenry II kwinkulungwane yeshumi elinesibini lwaseka umthetho oqhelekileyo kulo lonke elaseNgilani, endaweni yokususa amasiko asekuhlaleni. IiJaji zobukumkani zahamba ilizwe zize zenze isiqu esizinzileyo semizekelo. Umgaqo westare decissis (ukuma ngokwezinto ezigqitywe zisigqibo) wathetha ukuba izigqibo zezomthetho zangaphambili ezinyanzelelwe abalawuli nabagwebi bexesha elizayo. Oku kwadala isakhiwo esinamandla esizimeleyo ngoko kuthanda kokumkani, ukuguqula ingcamango yokuba umthetho ufunyaniswe ngesizathu nesithethe, hayi nje emiselwe ngumlawuli.

Izakhiwo Zamandla Abalulekileyo: ICawa NoRhulumente

Umzabalazo oqhubekayo phakathi kweCawa yamaKatolika kunye nookumkani behlabathi (owaphenjelelwa yiNkqutyana ye-Pinterment) wadala icandelo elahlukileyo nelinamandla legunya. ICawa yazibanga inegunya kwimicimbi yokomoya, umtshato, nemfundo. Le mfundiso idibeneyo yathintela ulawulo olupheleleyo lwalo nawuphi na umlawuli, imisela ingcamango enamandla yokuba imimandla ethile yobomi babantu ikho ngaphandle kokufikelela kolawulo. Le ngcamango yokulawula yaba yeyona nto iphambili kwiingcamango zanamhlanje ngolwahlulo lwecawa norhulumente nokhuseleko loluntu.

Ukukhanyiselwa: Ukuxhokonxwa Korhulumente Olinganiselweyo

Inkulungwane yeshumi elinesixhenxe neyeshumi elinesibhozo ngokusisiseko yaphembelela intanda-bulumko yezobupolitika, isusa umthombo wegunya kwilungelo lobuthixo nakwisithethe ukuya kuvuma kwabalawulwa. Ezi ngcamango zingekho ngqiqweni zaba yindawo esetyenziswa ekuvuselelweni kweenguqulelo.

Amalungelo Emvelo Nesivumelwano Sentlalo

Ukusebenzisa ingcali zangaphambili, [[FLT: 0] uJohn Locke'''s ``Isivumelwano esinyuliweyo sikaRhulumente' [ [1689]]) usekelele isiseko esinempembelelo enkulu kulawulo-lulawulo-lulawulo-luphezulu lwangoku. [[FLT] [FFF:] [FLT] [10] uthetho lokukhusela amalungelo engokwemvelo [kunye], amandla karhulumente alinganiselwe naphantsi kwemiqathangokwakhe, ukuba athelekelele abantu, athene , athelela nakuko, aba baphikisayo aba bantu abathe ncam yodwa, kodwa abanonento ekho.[FFF] [e-edum] [e-egroute] [e-An, ulawulo oluthe .[10]

Ukwahlukana Kwamandla

Ubuchule bukaBaron de Montesquieu, Umoya woMthetho (1748), unikezele ngeplani ecwangcisiweyo yemithetho-siseko yale mihla. Ngokufunda iRome Republic kunye nomgaqo-siseko wamaNgesi, uMontesquie waphikisa ukuba inkululeko yezopolitiko igcinwe kakuhle xa imisebenzi karhulumente ihlulwe ngamasebe amathathu ahlukeneyo: ilectritive[ [ukwenza imithetho], [ukwenza imithetho], ukuthelekisa, [[FLT]] umgaqo ohlukene ngelinye iqela, [[FLT] [ult:5] [umthetho], kunye [iiimithetho] epheleleyo.[FLT][FLT] [FLT] [ip] [ikt] [ikt] imigaqo yokulinganisa amanye amasebe.

Imbambano YobuAbsorutism NoMlawuli Jikelele Wokuthanda

UVoltaire waluxhasa ngokunganikezeli inkululeko yabemi . . uJacques Rousseau[[FLT:] [iiFLT1] wacebisa ulawulo-lawulo-lwazi oluthe chatha, oludibeneyo apho ulawulo-siseko lwezolawulo-siseko luhlala khona kubantu. Ngoxa le ngcamango ikhuthaza ulawulo lwesizwe ukuba luziphendulele ngokwalo, ikwanobungangamsha, apho umlawuli wayenokuthi ucebisa ukuba asebenzise idemokhrasi ekwayalulweni oluthe ngqo ngokuchasene nokhetho lwabantu.

Imida Eqhelekileyo Ngexesha Lemvukelo

Iingcamango ezingeyonyaniso zoKhanyiso zaye zayilwa zafakwa kumaxwebhu omgaqo-siseko aqinileyo ngexesha leziphendu eziguqukileyo ekupheleni kwenkulungwane ye-18. La maxwebhu aba yisikhokelo solawulo lwedemokhrasi yale mihla.

Imvukelo eGcwalisayo yaseNgilani (1688)

Phambi kweNguquko yaseMerika neyamaFrentshi, iBhill yamaNgesi yamaLungelo (1689) yaqinisekisa imida ewisiweyo kwiNguquko eGikileyo. Yakuthintela ukutshintshwa kwemithetho ngegunya lobukumkani, imikhosi evaliweyo ngexesha loxolo ngaphandle kwemvume yepalamente, kwaye ifuna unyulo olukhululekileyo. Yaqinisekisa ilungelo lemibalelwa ukuba bacele umlawuli kunye nenkululeko yokuthetha nengxoxo ePalamente. Olu xwebhu lwamisela ukuguqulo kulawulo olupheleleyo lolawulo lobukhosi obusebukhosini, kunye nemithetho ephakamileyo esemthethweni.

Ilinge laseMerika: Ukwenziwa komGaqo-siseko

[Iinqanam elingu-[10]. [IiNtlobano ze-FF] [IiNTP] zingumzekelo ophumelele nobewuxelelwayo kwimida yokwakha kurhulumente. Imisela inkqubo ye [[FLT: 0] kunye nomlinganiselo : [[FFF:2] [Iiinqawa] [FFFT:3] [iiiiiinqawa] [iiiinqanwa] le-akelelwane] [iikhefu] [ikhefu] [ikhefu].[10] [ikhefu] [ikhefu] [ikhefu] [ikhefu] [ikhefu] [ikhefu] [ikhefu] [ikhefu].ikhefuthefu] [ikhefuthefu] [ikhentifu] [ikhafu] [ikhanti]

Indlela eshukumayo yeMvukelo yamaFrentshi

ISibhengezo samaFrentshi samaLungelo oMntu nowaManyano [1] yayiyingxelo enamandla yemigaqo yendalo iphela. Savakalisa inkululeko, impahla, ukhuseleko, nokuchasana nengcinezelo njengamalungelo emvelo. Saseka ukuthelekisa ukungabikho semthethweni, inkululeko yokuthetha, nokulingana okusemthethweni. Noko ke, iNguquko yaseFransi yehlela ngokukhawuleza kwiTerkiya, ebonisa ukuba oko kuthelekelela kuphela ngaphandle kwemibutho ezinzileyo, isithethe sokulalanisa, ukuhlonela umthetho. Indlela yamaFrentshi, kunye nemijikelezo yayo yeenguqulelo, ukusabela, nobukhosi, yasebenza njengentsomi kuhlebo olulunyukileyo lwemisholo-gracralis, noluenomo.

Ukwandisa Isangqa Senkululeko Ngeenkulungwane Ze - 19 Nezama - 20

Imida eyamiselwa ngumgaqo-siseko wamandulo yayingqongqo kakhulu ekuqaleni kubameli ababekhusela, ngokuqhelekileyo abamhlophe bempahla. Iinkulungwane ezalandelayo zazichazwa ngomzabalazo omde, onzima wokwandisa olu khuseleko kubo bonke abemi.

Ukukhuthaza Ubukhoboka Nokunyusa Itofu

Ukuphikisana okucacileyo phakathi kolwimi oluphakamileyo lwenkululeko kunye nenyaniso yobukhoboka kwabangela imfazwe engundoqo eUnited States. Imfazwe yabemi kunye , i-14th, kunye ne-15 yeSigqibo sokuzinzisa ngokucacileyo kukwandiswa komGaqo-siseko, ukuseka ubumi bobuhlanga, ukhuseleko olulinganayo phantsi komthetho, kunye nenkqubo efunekayo kumgangatho wesizwe. Oku kwaba kulwandiswa okukhulu kwemiqathango yegunya ngalinye. [FT] [FT] [FT], ikhulu leshumi elinesithoba nelethu lenkulungwane libona ukwanda okuphawulekayo kwe-frank. [[5] IiNtks.[5] Iingulognomes ezipheleleyo ze-RG.[FLT] ezigunyazinzileyo ze-RG.[5]

Ukunyuka kweNkqutyana yezeejaji neeNkundla zomGaqo-siseko

Amandla eenkundla okonakalisa imithetho echasene nomgaqo-siseko waba luhlolo olunamandla kwiimeko ezinkulu zomthetho kunye nezenzo zolawulo. Ngokulandela imodeli ye-. , amazwe amaninzi aseka iinkundla ezomeleleyo zomgaqo-siseko. Emva kobugqwirha bemfazwe yehlabathi II, amazwe aseYurophu anjengeJamani kunye ne-Itali adala iinkundla eziphezulu ezinamandla okhethekileyo okuhlola umgaqo-siseko. [[FLT:] [[FLT:] Inkundla yezomgaqo-siseko wesizwe yaseJamani [ (Boundingsrichsrichsricht)) ngokukhethekileyo emele isebenzise ukutshabalalisa ulawulo-mthetho-siseko. Oku kwabonisa ukuzinikela kumthetho-Statu. [FT] [FT] [FFG.5]

Ukuguqula Amalungelo Abantu Ezizwe Ngezizwe

Ukubulawa kwabantwana ngokwenkohlakalo kunye nezenzo zenkohlakalo zeMfazwe Yehlabathi II zabonisa ukusilela okuyintlekele kwemida yamakhaya kuphela kurhulumente. Isibhengezo somanyano lwamalungelo abantu (1948]), esamkelwa yiZizwe Ezimanyeneyo, savakalisa ukuba isidima esizalwayo kunye namalungelo alinganayo abo bonke abantu asisisiseko senkululeko, okusesikweni, kunye noxolo. Le zivumelwano kunye nelandelayo (ICCCPR, ICECCCCR) yaseka ukuba ulawulo lwaselungameli lunganikeze gunya elingenasiphelo kubantu ngabanye. Iityala zale zimisela umgaqo wokuziphendulela ngokwetyala abantu ngabanye ngenxa yolwaphulo-mthetho, kwanokuba zingumbala owenziwa phantsi komthetho. Kwixesha lokuqala, indlela urhulumente wakhe owaphatha ngayo abantu ngokuba ngumbalo olufanelekileyo.[[FFoctalGeneltion:] [2]

Ucelomngeni Olulandelayo Lokuthintela Urhulumente

Ngoxa imbali ibonisa ukomelezwa kwemida, inkulungwane yama - 21 ibangela ucelomngeni olunzulu, oluvela kwiincwadi ezivavanya le migaqo.

I-Panopticon yamanani: Imfuno kunye nemfihlo

Ukunyuka kobugcisa bamanani obungalinganiyo kuye kwabangela ubuchule obungenakuthelekiswa nanto bokujongana norhulumente. Ukuqokelelwa kogcino-lwazi lweMisa, ulwaluko lobuso, ulawulo oluqikelelwayo, kunye nokukhukuliseka kombhalo ofihlakeleyo kuphakamisa imibuzo emikhulu ngomgaqo weSine wokuLandlisela ngokuchasene nokuphengulula okungekho ngqiqweni nelungelo lokuzimela. Izityhilo zikaEdward Snowden malunga neenkqubo zokuhlola kwe-NSA kubonise ukuba ubugcisa buwugqithe kangakanani umthetho. Ulungelelwano phakathi kokhuseleko lwesizwe kunye nemfihlo lungundoqo wemfazwe engundoqo karhulumente woluntu ngenkathi yamanani.

Amandla Engozi Nokuncipha Kwemilo

ICriss/pandemics, uhlaselo lwabanqolobi, ukuwa kwemali, ukuwa kwemali, ngokufuthi kukhokelela kulwandiso lwamandla olawulo. Imikhosi yezolawulo iye yalwa notshintsho lwexeshana lwendlela eqhelekileyo esemthethweni. Isifo seCHOVID sabona oorhulumente ehlabathini lonke bebeka izitshixo, amanyathelo okufika kwexesha, ukuvalwa kohambo, kunye nokugonya okunyanzelekileyo, ukubhebhenela impikiswano enzulu ngemida yegunya lonyango loluntu nomlinganiselo wenkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Umngcipheko ukho kumagunya aqhelekileyo athelela phambili , apho imilinganiselo yokwexeshana ingunyaka okanye apho iinkokeli zixhaphaza amanqamlezo-ayo ukuze zityhale amandla okuchasa inkcaso nolawulo.

Ubupopulism, UbuGaqo-siseko obuzisebenzelayo, nokuTyhiliselwa Kwedemokhrasi

Mhlawumbi eyona ngxaki ibalulekileyo yexesha elinye kukwanda kwemibutho yezobupolitika ephumelela unyulo lwedemokhrasi kodwa ngokulandelelanayo ithoba umgaqo-siseko okhululekileyo ngaphakathi. Le [[FTL:0]" i-autocraticism ngokomthetho" okanye "idemokhrasi engundoqo" ibandakanya ukusebenzisa izixhobo zolawulo-moya-moya ukuhlasela abachasi, ukuthatha ijelo-jaji elizimeleyo, ukunqanda ulawulo-lwazi oluzimeleyo, kunye namandla azimeleyo ngokumisela imithetho ebhaliweyo e-encwadi. Uqwalaselo ekuthinteleni urhulumente ukuba ahluze aphule. Ukuqonda esi sizathu kufuna ukuba sijonge ngaphaya kobukho bokhetho kwimpilo yabo bonke amaziko anyanze imidathatho: i-genticardary, i-gradiant, i-graccul, i-fodiognogn, i-foraccul, i-graccul ye-gnograc.

Isiphelo: Ukuhlala Uthe qwa Kwenkululeko

Indaleko yembali yemida kumandla karhulumente asiyonto ingumgca wenkqubela engenakuphepheka. Ngumlo onamandla, odla ngokuba nogonyamelo phakathi kotyekelo lomntu jikelele lokugxininisa kumandla kunye nomnqweno onamandla omntu wokufuna inkululeko. Ukusuka kumacwecwe odongwe aseBhabhiloni ukuya kumadabi amanani amalungelo enkulungwane yama-21, ucelomngeni olusembindini lushiyekile: Quiscustodietos custos? [ULT]

Impendulo asiloxwebhu olunye, isibonelelo, okanye inkokeli. Luxwebhu olusebenzayo, oluthembisene, nolufundileyo oluzinikele ngokunzulu kumthetho kunye nemigaqo-siseko. Ukukhusela idemokhrasi kufuna inkundla ezimeleyo, ezizimeleyo; umatshini wokushicilela okhululekileyo nonokuzithethelela; iinkonzo zokhuseleko; kwaye ngaphezu kwako konke, impucuko yabantu exabisa inkululeko kukhuseleko nomgaqo-siseko ngaphezu koncedo lobugqwesa. Imida karhulumente ayizinqumli; zizinto ezinokufezwa ngokungenakulungiseka, ukuphaphaphapha, nokukulungela ukuqhelanisa kwiingxaki ezintsha. Ikamva lenkululeko lixhomekeke ekufundeni kwethu izifundo zembali zamandla kwaye isebenzise ubulumko kunye nokuzimisela kokuzilawula kwehlabathi.