Table of Contents
Iinkqubo Zamandulo Zezomthetho: Umqulu Wobulungisa Obuqikelelweyo
Iinkqubo zomthetho zokuqala zazingahlukanga kunqulo okanye kwisiko; zaziyimiboniso yehlabathi lengingqi. Kumaxesha amandulo eMesopotamiya, iCode kaHammurabi (i-i-iNkcukacha 1754 BCE) yaseka enye yemithetho ebhaliweyo. Ibhalwe kwi-stale, yayinemithetho egqume impahla, urhwebo, intsapho, kunye nezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho. Umgaqo wayo odumileyo “weliso leliso” uveza okusesikweni, kodwa ikhowudi eyaziswayo yeklasi yemi ekhululekileyo neyamakhoboka yaphathwa ngokwahlukileyo. Le mithetho iphenjelelwa kwizithethe zomthetho zasemva kweMpuma Mpuma.
KwiYiputa yamandulo, umthetho wawusuka kwingcamango ye Ma'at (inyaniso, ulungelelwano, umyalelo). UFaro wasebenza njengabagwebi abaphezulu, kwaye iimpikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni zaconjululwa ngamabhunga asekuhlaleni. Ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho lalisoloko lohlwaywa ngokuhlawulwa, ukubethwa, okanye ukugxothwa kunokubulawa. Inkqubo yomthetho yayigxininisa ukubuyiselwa kwemvisiswano kunokusohlwaywa ngokunyulu.
Isiseko somthetho esihlala sihleli samandulo savela eRoma. umthetho weRoma wavela kwiinkulungwane, ukusuka kwi Tables ezili-12 (451-450 BCE) ukuya kumthetho omkhulu osetyenziswa nguMlawuli Justinian kwinkulungwane yesithandathu CE/isiseko se-[FL:2] i-Corpuris Julris . Imithetho yamaRoma yaphuhlisa iingcamango ezifana [[FLT:]] yomthetho wendalo [iiimigaqo] ebanzi yezobulungisa), [[FLT], [FLT] kunye nemithetho yomthetho yoluntu esetyenziswayonke namhlanje, [FLT] kunye nomthetho woluntu (i-Antakthe , kunye nolwahlu lwahlukeneyomthetho woluntu, kunye nolwahlulo lwabantu base-Alase-Asiya, kunye nolwahlulo lwabiwo-mthetho woluntu (oluninzi lwamanyeneyomthetho olukhoyo).[FLT.[FLT][8:5]
Ukuqwalasela ngokunzulu kwiminikelo yamaRoma, bona ukucatshulwa komthetho wamaRoma Britannica.
KumaXesha Aphakathi: UMthetho Oqhelekileyo, Isithethe, neMagna Carta
Ukuwa koBukhosi baseRoma baseNtshona kwakhokelela kukwahlulwa kwenkqubo yomthetho esekelwe kumasiko esizwe kunye nolwalamano lwamatyala. ENgilani, inkqubela-phambili ebalulekileyo yayikukuvela komthetho oqhelekileyo phantsi koKumkani Henry II (wenkulungwane yeshumi elinesibini). Endaweni yamasiko asekuhlaleni ahluka-hlukeneyo ngommandla, abagwebi basebukhosini bahamba ilizwe baza badala inkqubo emanyanisayo yeli qhinga elinamatyala kwixesha elizayo. Le sithethe somthetho saba siphawu lwenkqubo yomthetho ye-Anglo - American.
uMagna Carta yayilixesha eliphawulayo. Inyanzeliswe kuKumkani John ngamabharon anemvukelo, yaseka ukuba ukumkani wayengangaphezulu kunomthetho. U-Celas uqinisekisa inkqubo efunekayo ."Ingathi lilungelo lokuvavanywa ngokufanelekileyo koontanga bakhe ."Iphepha lomgaqo-siseko lamva njenge U.S. Bill of Rights. IMagna Carta ibekel irhafunxa-nte eyinte nengxwaleko yempahla, ukutyala imbewu yempahla kunye nenkululeko yabemi.
UbuFasi badala umgaqo-siseko oqinileyo: iinkosi zabamba iinkundla zabo ngenxa yezigwebo zabo, iinkundla zenkundla zamatyala zasingatha iimbambano zabalimi, kunye necawa (yobukhomani) eyayilawula umthetho womtshato, ilifa, kunye netyala labefundisi. Umthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho wahlala ungqwabalala, ngesohlwayo kunye nokubulawa okuqhelekileyo ngenxa yobusela, ukungcatsha, kunye nobuqhetseba. Noko ke, ukusetyenziswa [[[FLT:] ityala [[FLT] [FLT: 1]] (umz., ukuphatha isinyithi esishushu) kwarhoxa iCawa kunye neenkundla zetyala zolawulo zasebukhosini zavuma ukuvavanywa.
Ngasekupheleni kwamaXesha aphakathi, imfundo engokwasemthethweni yanda kumayunivesithi anjenge Bologna ne Oxford. Abaphengululi bavuselela umthetho wamaRoma, benza i-Iius sumant[ (umthetho oqhelekileyo waseYurophu) owadibanisa amaRoma, uluhlu olungcwele, kunye namasiko asekuhlaleni. Le siseko sobulumko salungiselela utshintsho.
Ukuncina Amakholwa
ICawa yamaKatolika yaphuhlisa inkqubo yayo engokomthetho . umthetho onxulumeneyo [=abefundisi abaququzelelayo, amasaka, kunye netyala lokuziphatha. INkundla yokuNcina amakholwa, eyasekwa ngenkulungwane ye-13, yayila iinkqubo ezisesikweni zokuphengulula uqhekeko. Nangona isoloko inxulumene nokuthuthunjiswa nokucinezelwa, iNkundla yokuNcikica ingenisa ingcamango yenkqubo ye iinquisitorial [[ (uphendlo lwetyala oludityanisiweyo), kamva oluphembele inkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho yaseYurophu. Umthetho wamakhaya nolwaphuli-mthetho lwalusahambelana; izigwebo zombini iingozi zonqulo kunye nolo.
Ukukhanyiselwa: Ukuqiqa, Amalungelo Notshintsho
I-17 kunye neshumi elinesibhozo lenkulungwane, ukubila kwengqondo ``` ukukhanyiselwa ] . Ngokusisiseko ingcaciso yokulungisa kwakhona iingcamango ezingokwasemthethweni. Iingcali zentanda-bulumko zafuna ukuba umthetho usekelwe kwingqiqo, amalungelo emvelo, kunye nesivumelwano soluntu, hayi umyalelo wobuthixo okanye iminqweno yobukumkani.
[[FLT:] uJohn Locke waphikisa ukuba abantu banamalungelo anokuphambukiswa ebomini, inkululeko, nempahla, kwaye loo rhulumente kufuneka akhusele la malungelo. uMentesquieu[[[FLT:]] uxhasa ukwahlulwa kwamagunya (ukunqunyulwa, umthetho wezomthetho) ukunqanda ubuzwilakhe (umgaqo wemithetho-mthetho) ukunqanda ubuzwilakhe obuninzi bemishicisho-mthetho yanamhlanje. [[FLT:] [FLT:] u-Carerias Beria [[FLT:] [5] [[FLT:] ku-CULT] kunye nengqhinga lolwaphulo-mthetho [FLT] [FLT] [12] isigwebo setyala: [5] [iiiiiiiisizathu esingu-5]
Iingcamango zokukhanyiselwa zakhuthaza utshintsho olusemthethweni kulo lonke elaseYurophu naseMerika. IMvukelo yaseMerika yavelisa umGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. (1787) kunye noMgaqo-siseko wamalungelo (1791), imisela inkqubo karhulumente, ukuvavanywa ngabagwebi, kunye nokukhuselwa nxamnye nolwaphulo-mthetho olukhohlakeleyo. [[FLT:] INguqu yamaFLT] yawaphelisa amalungelo emfazwe yaza yamisa [[FLT: 4.] Ulwahlulo lwamalungelo omntu, kunye nolwaMaLugwebo [78], eyathi bonke abemi bavakalisa ukuba balingana nomthetho ofanelekileyo.
Enye yeempumelelo ezinkulu yayiyi umbutho wokwahlula . Phambi kokuba ukukhanyiselwa, imithetho yayisasazekile, iphikisana, kwaye isoloko iyimfihlo. Abaguquli babefuna ikhowudi ezicacileyo, ezifikelelekayo abantu abaqhelekileyo ababenokuziqonda. [ Ikhowudi yeNtopho-Nacolonic [1804] [iimithetho yamakhaya enempembelelo eninzi] eyayiphelisa ukungqubana, iqinisekisa amalungelo empatho, kwaye yaseka amalungelo ezinto, kunye noqhawulo mtshato. Yasebenza njengemodeli yekhowudi e-Itali, eSpeyin, e-Latin America, kwanamalungu eMpuma Mpuma. Bona okuninzi kwiziphumo zayo ezizweni lonke, [FLT.[FLD]
Inkulungwane Ye - 19: Ukwakhana, Ukuphucula Ushishino Namalungelo Entlalo
Inkulungwane ye-19 yafumana ukwanda okudubulayo kumthetho ngenxa yokuphuhlisa kwemizi - mveliso, ukwenziwa kwedolophu, kunye nentsebenziswano yentlalo. Umthetho wabemi wanwenwa kwimimandla emitsha: umnqophiso womthetho wetort, (i-glice kunye netyala), kunye nomthetho wequmrhu. Imithetho yamakhaya yaseJamani [ (BB, 1900) yaba yenye imodeli enkulu, eyaziwa ngesakhiwo sayo kunye nentembeko yayo.
Umthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho wathabatha utshintsho. Umthetho omninzi waphelisa ukuphunyezwa kolwaphulo-mthetho lukawonke-wonke kwaye wanciphisa inani lolwaphulo-mthetho olumanyumnyezi. intsingiselo elungileyo ekhoyo [ ifumene i-trakiti-"iintolongo kwakulindeleke ukuba ziguqule abaphuli-mthetho, hayi nje ukubahlwaye. Umthetho wepenal yeFransi [1810]) iphefumle ikhowudi efanayo ngaphaya kweYurophu, ingenisa iindidi zolwaphulo-mthetho (amatyala, amatyala, amasuntswana, amasuntswana, isohlwayo) kunye nezigwebo eziqhelekileyo.
Amalungelo emisebenzi avela njengesebe elitsha lomthetho. Abasebenzi bezoshishino babejamelene neemeko eziyingozi, iiyure ezininzi, kunye nemivuzo ephantsi. Amaqumrhu orhwebo alwela ukuthelekisana ngentlalo-ntle, kwaye oorhulumente basabela ngemisebenzi yemzi - mveliso, imiqathango yokusebenza kwabantwana, nemithetho yentlawulo yabasebenzi. Le mithetho yayikukudityaniswa komthetho wasekuhlaleni nowamatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, yaye abasebenzi babenokuhlawulwa okanye bagwetyelwe ukwaphula umthetho.
Amalungelo amabhinqa akwaqala ukutshintsha umthetho wasekuhlaleni. Imisebenzi yamabhinqa e-Englini nase-United States yavumela amabhinqa atshatileyo ukuba abe nempahla yawo kwaye angene kwizivumelwano, icel ’ umngeni imfundiso yomthetho eqhelekileyo yokufihla (ekwakungagunyaziswa ngokomthetho womfazi kumyeni wakhe). Noko ke, ukulingana okupheleleyo okusemthethweni kwahlala kungusukelo olude.
Imibutho yezenyuko yaluphelisa ngempumelelo urhwebo lwamakhoboka kunye nobukhoboka ngokwayo kumazwe amaninzi aseNtshona ngasekupheleni kwenkulungwane ye-19. uHlaliso lwe-13 (165] kunye [[FLT]] nemithetho ye-Emancation Proclation [1863]] [iiiii-i-i-i-intshi] emela ukuguquka kwe-injinjiko kumthetho wamakhaya nowabaphuli-mthetho, [i-FLT] [i-10] [i-i-i-i-i-i-intelligethi] [i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-intelligedssssss [i-[Fod]thm]th-art (ink ) yayingasahlulwa ngokwabemi abameli abaminyembeliye-abahlaliye-mthetho abaneyokukhuseli abaneyokunyelene
Inkulungwane Yama - 20: Amalungelo Abantu, Umthetho Wezizwe Ngezizwe Nokudityaniswa Kwehlabathi
Iimfazwe ezimbini zehlabathi kunye noBulawa bamaNazi zabangela uvumelwano lwazweni lonke lokuba amalungelo abantu asisiseko kufuneka akhuselwe ngomthetho, hayi nje ngamazwe, kodwa ngoluntu lwezizwe ngezizwe. IZizwe ezimanyeneyo zasekwa ngo 1945, kwaye izibhengezo ezisisiseko zamalungelo abantu kufuneka zibekwe ngomlinganiselo owahlukileyo: womntu wonke unelungelo lobomi, inkululeko, ukhuseleko, ukuvavanywa kobulungisa, inkululeko yokuthetha, kwaye okungakumbi. Nangona ingagunyaziswanga ngokusemthethweni, yakhuthaza izivumelwano ezininzi kunye nemithetho-mthetho.
Umthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho wehlabathi wavela njengommandla owahlukileyo. Intlanganiso ye-NUREMberg [1945-46] yamiselwa ukuba abantu banokubekwa ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho oluchasene noluntu, ulwaphulo-mthetho lwemfazwe, kunye nokutshatyalaliswa kohlanga, nokuba babesenza phantsi kwemiyalelo. IConvention [[FLT]]Genecoc [[[FLT:]] [1948]] [iiiinkcukacha zentlalo-ntle yohlanga.] Ngonyaka wama-2002], iNkundla ye-Slawulo ye-Sname ye-SCIC [[FLT:] [FF]] [FLT:]
Ngokwezekhaya, imibutho yamalungelo abantu kumazwe amaninzi yandisa umlinganiselo womthetho wamakhaya. I-Civil Rights Act (1964) ucalucalulo olungekho mthethweni olusekelwe kuhlanga, umbala, unqulo, isini, okanye imvelaphi yesizwe. [[FLT:]] [[FLT]]] [2] Amalungelo oMkhosi] Asemthethweni (1965]) waphelisa imiqobo yokuvota ama-fringi aseAfrika. Umthetho wecango wolwaphulo-mthetho watshintsha: [[FLT:] imfazwe yeziyobisi[FLT:][5] [FLT] [5] [eg:] [ekuqalisa kwiminyaka ka 1970s]) ikhokelela ekuthwaleni, ingakumbi ekuchaphazaneni kwemipulce, ukuguqula iinstrust.[Ft] [Foct:[5]
Ukudityaniswa kwehlabathi kwathetha ukuba iinkqubo zomthetho zidibane ngokukhulayo. Urhwebo lomda womda ophakathi lwafuna imithetho elungelelanisiweyo ````````''''Ingqungquthela ye-UN' kwiNdibano ye-International Salses'' [i-CISG] ngumzekelo oyintloko. Ukwahlulwa kwehlabathi lonke kwaba yindlela eqhelekileyo yokulungisa iimpikiswano zoshishino. Kwangaxeshanye, umthetho wamalungelo abantu wamazwe ngamazwe wanyanzelela amazwe ukuba atshintshe izithethe zasekhaya, ukusuka ekuphelisweni kwesohlwaywa ukufa kumazwe amaninzi ukuya kugunyaziswa ngokusemthethweni womtshato omnye.
Inkqubo yomthetho yasemva kwe-Culemark
Ukuqhatha emva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II kwabona amazwe azimeleyo amatsha ejongene nezigqibo eziqatha ngokuphathelele imigaqo yawo esemthethweni. Amaninzi agcinwe kwimithetho yawo elawula amathanga awo .
Iingxaki Zangexesha Elidluleyo: Ubugcisa, Ubulungisa Bentlalo Notshintsho
Iinkqubo zomthetho zanamhlanje zijongene notshintsho olukhawulezileyo lwezobugcisa. umthetho we-Cyber idilesi zokuqhekeza, ubusela, ubuqhetseba kwi-intanethi, kunye novimba we-data. Jikelele uKhuselo lwe-data yokhuseleko [ (GDPR) kwi-European Union (uphumeze 2018) icwangcise uphawu lwebhethri yehlabathi lonke lokukhusela ugcino-lwazi lobuqu, ukubeka intengoleko enzima yempatho yolwaphulo-mthetho. Ngoku umthetho we-gembutho uquka ulwaphulo-mthetho olufana nentelo, ukubuyisa inte, kunye nokuphicola. Ukunga kwe-computha kwe-intanethi ye-intanethi kwane-intanethi ye-intanethi kuvava ivava imigaqo ye-intanethi ikwayi-yo-yokuvavanya imithetho ye-e-ey ye-e-ey proviation systling nolawulo.
Ubuchule bokwenza buphakamisa imibuzo enamagama: Ngubani obekek'ityala xa imoto ezifaka engozini? Ingaba i-algorithm ibekelwe ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho? Umthetho wabemi uqhelaniswa neengcamango ezintsha ze-tort, ngelixa umthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho uphikisana ngokusetyenziswa kwe-IAI kujolise ekuxelweni kwamapolisa kunye nokugwetywa. Ukuba nekhethe kwii-algorithm kubangele ukuba abantu bafune ukuba babe netyala.
[[FLT:] Intshukumo yobulungisa enyanzelisa ukunyanzeliswa kwemibutho yobulungisa inyanzelisa ubalo nocalucalulo lwenkqubo kunye nokungalingani. [[FLT:] Intshukumo eBEMF Live Manuty Iqela libalase inkohlakalo yamapolisa kunye nokuvalelwa kwabantu abaninzi, nto leyo ekhokelela ekubizeni ukuphelisa ityala lemali, ukuphelisa iibheyili zemali, kunye nokucima iinkolelo zomjuxubedu. [FLT:] [FLT]] Imithetho elawulayo i-Mouse Linelty [ iinkqubo zokuphatha amaxhoba nokusebenza ukulungisa umonakalo, nto leyo ebangela ukukhupha amajelo lwentolongo ekhohlo. Ezinye iinkqubo zomthetho zomthetho zomthetho zomthetho ezisemthethweni okanye zeziyobisi (g.g.,nabi) kunye nokusebenza kwimimiselo yezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho.
Umthetho wokusingqongileyo ngomnye umda. Ukutshintshwa kwemozulu koorhulumente kunye nemibutho kusebenzisa zombini ii-torts zasekuhlaleni (umz., inkathazo) kunye nemithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho (umz., ungcoliso olungekho mthethweni). I- iParis Accounting (2015] lisixhobo somthetho othambileyo, kodwa iinkundla zasekuhlaleni ziqalisile ukunyanzela oorhulumente ukuba benze kwizifungo zemozulu.
Kwinkqubela-phambili yakutshanje kutshintsho lomthetho wezaphuli-mthetho, bona iProject yokuzilungisa nophando kunye nokungagunyazi.[FLT: 1]
Ikamva: Ubulungisa Obubuyiselweyo, Ukufikelela, Nemithetho Engokwasemthethweni Esemhlabeni Wonke
Xa ujonga phambili, iprojekthi ezininzi zicebisa indlela umthetho wamakhaya nowabaphuli-mthetho oza kuqhubeka ngayo utshintsha. isigwebo sobuNcedo singaba yeyona nto ibalulekileyo yetyala, ukunciphisa inani lamabanjwa kwaye ubhekiso phambili kuluntu oluphilisayo. Inyathelo lokulungisa ingcaciso-mthetho i-indlela zokusebenzisa ubugcisa, uncedo olusemthethweni, kunye neenkqubo ezilula] zokuvala umsantsa phakathi komthetho nabantu abaqhelekileyo. i-Online Disombululo kunye neenkonzo ezisemthethweni eziqululiweyo zingenza umgangatho ophezulu wobulungisa nowodwa.
Ukwenziwa komthetho ube yimbumba-mhlaba kunokwenzeka ukuba kuya kukhula. Imigaqo engokwasemthethweni (umz., kumalungelo abantu, ukurhweba, kunye nokhuseleko lwemekobume) iza kuphembelela ngokukhulayo iinkqubo zasekhaya. Ubuninzi obusemthethweni (apho iinkqubo ezininzi zomthetho zihlala kunye kumhlaba omnye (umz., iinkundla zonqulo, iinkundla zesizwe, iinkundla zikarhulumente)
Ekugqibeleni, [[NT.0] i-'umthetho wamakhaya nowamatyala' ungakhawulezisa. Umzekelo, ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho elisemzimbeni liphazamisa umgaqo phakathi komthetho wamakhaya nesohlwayo solwaphulo-mthetho. Ukuphulukana kwemibutho yabemi (ukwenza ngaphandle kwesiqinisekiso solwaphulo-mthetho) kutsale ukugxekwa ngenxa yokwaphula inkqubo efunekayo. Ikamva lingabona imida ecacileyo okanye imigaqo eninzi ye-projekthi.
Ngokushwankathela, ukuphuhliswa komthetho wasekuhlaleni nowakwaphula umthetho akuyonto ithethwayo kodwa kusoloko kusenziwa ingxubusho ephakathi kocwangco nenkululeko, isohlwayo kunye nokubuyiselwa komntu kwimo yezulu, isithethe sasekuhlaleni kunye namalungelo endalo. Ukuqonda le mbali kuxhobisa abafundisi, abafundi nabemi ukuba babe nenxaxheba ngokunentsingiselo kwisahluko esilandelayo somthetho.