Isiseko Samalungelo Abemi: Imida Yokuqala Kurhulumente

Uvavanyo lwaseMelika lokuzilawula lwakhiwa ngengqiqo yokuba igunya likarhulumente limele ligcinwe lisebenza. Isindululo senkululeko, esimiselwe ngo1776, savakalisa ukuba bonke abantu banikwe amalungelo angenakususwa, kuquka ubomi, inkululeko, nokusukela ulonwabo. Oku kujongo akukhange kube yiyo nje engekho ngqiqweni; kwaseka isiseko sentanda-bulumko sokuba urhulumente ufumana ugunya ekuvunyweni kwegunya likarhulumente kwaye nawuphi na urhulumente owephula amalungelo emvelo angatshintshwa okanye apheliswe. Abaxhasi boMgaqo-siseko, abaphenjelelwa yingcinga yoluvo olufana noJohn Locke noMontesquieu, owe yinkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela umlinganiselo wokuthintela igunya elithile. [[3] i-Foctive [F] uRhulumente [F] uRhulumente] uRhulumente olungekho ngokomthetho kurhulumente, ngexesha elingu-Monterle.[3]

IBhili yamaLungelo, eyagunyaziswa ngowe-1791, yabala ngokucacileyo imida emiselweyo kugunyaziwe. UMthetho wokuqala Wokwenziwa kwemida walela ukwenza imithetho engonqulo okanye ukuvala inkululeko yokuthetha, yokushicilela, yokuhlanganisa, okanye yokucela. UMthetho wesine oLawulayo ukhuselekile ekuphengululweni okungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhwaleka. Umthetho wesiBhodi owesihlanu noweSithandathu uqinisekiswe inkqubela efunekayo kunye nezilingo ezifanelekileyo. Le miqathango yokhuseleko yayikukusetyenziswa kakubi kolawulo lwamaBrithi, njengokuvalwa kwemithetho engquzula-mthetho kunye nokucinezelwa kokungavumelani kwe-mthetho. Kodwa, kwasekuqaleni, ezi zithintelo zomgaqo-mthetho zasebenza kurhulumente worhulumente, zishiya inkululeko ekhululekileyo. Izakubamba imfazwe kunye neziphelo ezilandelayo ziqalise ukusebenzisa ulawulo lwamaLungelo oluphezulu kwiimfundiso ze-Genethi. [F.] [FTB]

Imfazwe Yamakhaya Nokwakhiwa Kwayo: Ukunciphisa Ulwalamano Phakathi Korhulumente Nabemi

Imfazwe yangaphakathi (1861-1865) yayingumthetho wogonyamelo kusini na ukuba urhulumente wesizwe wayenegunya lokuphelisa ubukhoboka nokuqinisekisa amalungelo asisiseko kubo bonke abantu. Imfazwe ngokwayo yamela ulwando olukhulu lwamandla orhulumente, kwaye yashiya imikhosi ye-Habeas corpus, kwaye yamisela i-Emantaption Proclation. Kodwa isiphumo semfazwe saguqula inkqubo yomgaqo-siseko. Umphetho weshumi elinesithathu (18555) waphelisa ubukhoboka kunye nempatho ezenzekelayo, ngaphandle kwesohlwayo yolwaphulo-mthetho. Uhlaziso lweshumi elinesine lonyaka (1868) lwanika bonke abantu abazalwe okanye abavalelweyo i-Rhulumente, eUnited States kwaye lwavalwa kumazwe okungaphi nabani na umntu obomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla engekho nkqubo yomthetho, okanye i-mthetho olinganayo. I-1870 ye-G.

Ngexesha lokuvuselelwa kwequmrhu lombuso, urhulumente wesizwe wawanyanzelisa ngokukhutheleyo la malungelo amatsha amakhaya aqinisekiswe ngokukhawuleza ngoMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1866, iNkundla yokuLawulwa kweNkundla yoMkhosi ka-1870 kunye no-1871, kunye nobukho bamajoni karhulumente eMzantsi. I-Freedmen’s Buaunt yanceda ngaphambili abantu ababengamakhoboka ekwakheniswe izikolo, izivumelwano zomsebenzi, kunye nezoburhulumente. Noko ke, idinga lokulungisa amalungelo ekwakhiweni kwakhawuleza laphelelwa. Inkundla ePhakakhulu yanikwa isigqibo kwizenzo ze-Expreme: 0 [[FUL:]] [FT] [1] Ityala lobugrafuts [1873] [123] [i-Fod Revotionstion-ementalgions, ingueced Revotions, inguevotion, ingaba ingumali epheleleyo kuMandla ye-AmGenefulks, i-evicelkT.[4

Ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini, urhulumente wesizwe waye uyishiyile kakhulu indima yakhe njengokhuselo lwamalungelo abantu, yaye amazwe aseMazantsi aye asebenzisa amandla angathintelekiyo kubemi abaNsundu. Imigaqo yezorhwebo yokuthomalalisa, ukuvalela amatyala nokuphatha ityala lezoqoqosho akuzange kugwetywe. Eli xesha labonisa ukuba ukumisela igunya likarhulumente kwinkcazo akwanele, kusetyenziswa isebe lejaji elilawulayo.

IMbutho yaMalungelo aBantwana: Isenzo esinempembelelo entle neNkxaso

IKhwephe lamaLungelo langaphakathi le 1950 kunye no1960 lavela njengempendulo engqalileyo yokusilela kwenkqubo yomthetho yasemva kokunikezelwa kwengxelo yomthetho ukukhusela amalungelo aseAfrika. Abenzi bemithetho basebenzisa iindlela ezingaphazamisiyo. "Abasebenzi, abahlali, abahlali, abakhweli be-intengiso, kunye nohambo olukhawulezileyo olunyanzelisa urhulumente ukuba ajongene nomsantsa phakathi kwezithembiso zomgaqo-siseko kunye nento ephilayo. Umbutho waphumelela uloyilo oluninzi olubalaseleyo olungomthetho oluthi lwachaza imida yamandla karhulumente, ingakumbi amandla karhulumente okucalula.

Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (54) yaba yeyona mpumelelo iphambili. INkundla Ephakamileyo yavakalisa ngamxhelo mnye ukuba ucalucalulo lohlanga kwizikolo zikawonke wonke lwaphula umthetho weSikhuseli esilinganayo sika-Claus we-145th Amend Amend. IJaji enkulu u-Earl Warren yaphikisa ukuba “amaziko efundisayo engaqhelekanga angolinganiyo.” Le sigqibo sayibhukuqa imfundiso “ethe tyaba kodwa iyalingana” ukusuka [FLT]] [FOLT] [[FT:3] yaza yathumela umyalezo onamandla othi urhulumente ucalucalucalulo lobuhlanga aluna. Noko ke, ulawulo oluninzi lwasemazantsi ayala ukukhokelela ku-1951, ukukhokelela ku-“Mbindibani-Exrock" xa umongameli we-En, xa wayenowe-En

Impumelelo yequmrhu lowiso-mthetho yayibaluleke ngokufanayo. UMthetho wamaLungelo ka1942 walwalela ucalucalulo olusekelwe kuhlanga, kumbala, kunqulo, isini, okanye imvelaphi yesizwe emsebenzini, okanye iinkqubo zelizwe ekusetyenzweni kwazo, iingingqi zoluntu, kunye neenkqubo zolawulo zikarhulumente. ISihlomelo VII soMthetho weSibonelelo soMsebenzi soMsebenzi (EOC) samiswa iKhomishini e-O). [[FLT: 2] [Iiiiiiii] Amalungelo okhuselwe ukuvota, njengokuvavanywa, njengokuvavanywa kokufunda, kunye nemithetho efuna imbali yocalucalucalucalulo ukuze ufumane ugunya olusemthethweni phambi kokutshintsha imithetho yokuvota. Le mithetho imele ukwandiswa kwegunya elikhulu lesizwe lokukhusela amalungelo oluntu, ulawulo oluthe ngqo nolwano lorhulumente lwasekuhlaleni.

UGqr. Martin Luther King Jr. ka- u-“Incwadi esuka eBirmingham Jail” yachaza impikiswano yemilinganiselo yokuziphatha neyomgaqo-siseko yokungathobeli kwemibutho yabemi: “Umntu akanayo imbopheleleko esemthethweni kuphela kodwa imfanelo yokuziphatha yokuthobela imithetho nje. Ngokuchaseneyo, umntu unembopheleleko yokuziphatha yokungathobeli imithetho engekho semthethweni. Ngokuchaseneyo nomthetho. Ngokuchasene noko, urhulumente unyanzelela urhulumente ukuba asebenze njengokhangelo olungekho semthethweni. Kodwa ufuna intengiso oluqhelekileyo lwengca.

Izigqibo Eziyintloko Zezeejaji: Ukuthobela Imida Yegunya Likarhulumente

Ijaji ibilibala elibalulekileyo lokukhuphisana nemilinganiselo yamandla karhulumente phezu kwamalungelo abantu. Ngaphaya Brown, amatyala amaninzi aphawula imbali aye ayila ukuqonda kwale mihla kwenkululeko yomntu ngamnye negunya likarhulumente.

Ilungelo Lokuzifunela Uwedwa Nokuzimela

[[NTLT: 0] Griswold v. Connecticut (65), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho ovala ukusetyenziswa kwezokuthintela inzala yesibini esitshatileyo, ifumana ilungelo elisemthethweni lokuzimela “iindawo zobuqu” kunye“ nezigqibo” zeBhili yamaLungelo. Esi sigqibo sahlula amandla karhulumente okungenelana nenkululeko yobuqu yomtshato. Roe v. [[127] [127] [127] [FLT] [FFFF]] umgaqo wobucala [FOMvukelo] uthethotho], uyakwazi ukunikezela imvume yokuba ityala lomfazi liphumele kuMthethwe ngurhulumente, ngokoburhulumente.[5]

Ukulingana Nocalucalulo

i-Outting v. Virginia (1967), iNkundla yaphelisa ukuvalwa komthetho wobuhlanga bomtshato, ikholelwa ukuba inkululeko yokutshata lilungelo elingundoqo kwaye ukwahlulwa kohlanga kufuneka kuqwalaselwe ngokungqongqo. [ Obergefell v. Hodges ((] ukwandisa loo ngqiqo kwizibini ezifanayo, ukuphelisa ukwaphula umthetho omnye we-*x, ukuphelisa ukwaphula umthetho othelekisa ukuma okungavumelani noMsebenzi womtshato ofanelekileyo noMgangatho kaClaus. Zombini ezi meko zilinganiselweyo igunya lokuchaza umtshato ngeendlela ezithetho-nga zingekho mthethweni. Ngokunjalo, [FLT.][FLD] v [2005] [FT] [FF]

Ulawulo lwezibonelelo

Emva kokudlula koMthetho wamaLungelo oMgaqo-siseko weVoting, iNkundla yawaxhasa kuqala amalungiselelo ayo. [Kunyakatho we-Carolina n/. Katzenbach (6), iNkundla yaqinisekisa ubukho bomgaqo-siseko wemfuno yangaphambili, iyibiza ngokuthi “kusetyenziswa okungaqhelekanga kodwa okusebenzayo” kwamandla orhulumente ukunyanzelisa uLawulo lweSimemezelo seshumi elinesihlanu soMphetho-Mphetho. Noko ke, kumthetho olinganiselweyo. Hanger (2013)[FLT], iNkuvume yagatya imigaqo esetyenziswayo ukugqiba oko kufunekayo ngaphambi kokuba ulawulo, ukukhupha ngokuphumelelayo elo lungiselelo. UJacholathi Roberts wabhala ukuba indlela yokuzibophelela nokungalawule okungalinganiyo. Ulawulo olulinganiselweyo. Ulawulo lwe-oventine (127) [FLT.3] [FLT.3], inguquluendo lomthetho olugunyazisa ulawulo olutsha olugunyazisayo, olugunya lokuvo olusetyenziswayokulawulayo

Ezinye izithintelo ezibalulekileyo ziquka Bostock v. Clayton County (2020), apho iNkundla yayisithi ulwalelo lweSihloko se VII kucalulo lwesondo luquka ucalulo olusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesondo okanye kumgangatho we-transgender, ukwandisa ukhuseleko lwamazwe kumsebenzi. Izigqibo zeFair Adgistrations v. Harvard (2023), eyathimba ukuvala inyathelo lokuvala ukuvala i-ibhanti kwikholeji, isithintela urhulumente asebenzise ugqatso lohlanga njengelungu kwimfundo kawonke. Ezi zigqibo zithe rhoqo zifumana imida yegunya.

Imbambano Yamalungelo Asekuhlaleni: Imfazwe Eqhubekayo

Namhlanje, impikiswano engakumbi ephathelele ulawulo lukarhulumente olulawula amalungelo abantu inamandla kunangaphambili.

Ukudlulisela Amalungelo Nengqibelelo Yokhetho

Kusukela kwiSithili [[FLT: 1], amaphondo amaninzi aye anika imithetho emisela iimfuno zokonyulwa okungqongqo, iposi kayikein, nciphisa amaxesha okuvota, kwaye phinda utsale imigca yesithili ngeendlela ezinciphisa amandla amancinane okuvota. Abaxhasi baphikisana nale miqathango yokuthintela ukuqhatha nokuqinisekisa unyulo; abachasi bazama ukubhalisa irhafutho-mali yemihla yemali elungiselelwe ukucinezela ukurhoxa kwemishwa kwemida yerhafu phakathi kweqaqo nokwe phantsi. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo [[FLT:] [[12]] John Voctigtion Revection Act Active Act [FLT:] [FFFond]] [3] [iglate isalathise iphulophu yetyala leBrangendla leBrangendla], ukuqinisekisa i-orhorhorho , ukurhola kweB, i-ondowa kweB, i-ofu transv.

LGBTQ+ amalungelo

Ngeli xesha [ [FLT] owehlayo kunye iBostock iphawula iimfazwe ezinkulu, ezitsha zivele. Imithetho yelizwe ijonge ukudlula kolutsha olunesigulo . [ngokokuthintelwa kokungaqiniseki kwesini nakumsebenzi, imiqathango yokuthatha inxaxheba kwimidlalo, kwaye igunyazisa ukuba abafundisi- “ngaphandle” kubazali . [FLT:] Le mithetho iphakamisa imibuzo emalunga nemilinganiselo yamandla elawula izigqibo zeentsapho kunye nenkathalo yonyango. [[FLGT:]]] [FUFOLT]] ummiselo woMnum, ulawulo lwezikonke [FLFLT:5] kunye nemithetho ekhuselweyokuninzi yezoburhulumente, umbalelwanoburhulumente, uluntu oluthelelweyonke.[3]

Ukufuduka Nokukhululwa Kwabemi

Inkqubo yokuququzelela i-inftware ithe yaba yindawo enkulu yamalungelo abantu. Ukuvalwa kolawulo loburhulumente (ekujoliswe kuko kwiTrump v. Hawaii (208)) kunye “nonyamezelo oluphelayo” olukhokelela kukwahlukana kwentsapho emdeni luye lwavuselelwa ngokuphandle njengokwe kwemida yegunya lolawulo lweququzelo. Ulawulo lweBiden lokuqhubekeka komthetho othile wokunyanzelisa ukufuduka luye lwacelw'icelw'iicelwa. Imeko ye-Acervert ye-Avetic Avetals (DACA) ihlala ikwilungu elisemthethweni, kunye neenkundla zokuphikisana nokuba ngaba isebe eliphetheyo linamandla okukhusela abaphambukeli kwi-ccudentiase. Njengabantwana abarhoxiweyo.

Ubulungisa Bezaphuli - mthetho Notshintsho Lwamapolisa

IBlack Lives Joader Matter, eyafumana ukuvelela kwesizwe emva kokubulawa kukaGeorge Floyd ngo-2020, ijolise ingqalelo kumandla nakumda wamandla karhulumente. Ingxoxo emalunga nokuthintelwa kwemiqathango . Oku kusetyenziswa kwabaphathi bezixhobo ze-odoli kwimpahla zamakhaya. Kwaye ngoku, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iqhubeke incina imiqathango yeCandelo yoMgaqo-nkathi, kwaye ukugawulwa kwesizwe kukhokelele kwimiqathango yesizwe ethile, njengokuva umvavas-VIllegs. [2] "12] ukuva unqanyulo lwendlela yokulawula kunye nemfuno yemiqathango yomzimba. [12] Umthetho wePoliccillics Act, kodwa uphumelele kwiNkusebenza kwe-Trometers.[2][3]

Ukuqhomfa Namalungelo Okuzala

Isigqibo sama-Dobts sasusa ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko wezwe lokuqhomfa, nto leyo ekhokelela kumsebenzi omninzi wemithetho karhulumente. Amanye amazwe aye amisela kufuphi ne-33 ehlalo-mali, ngoxa amanye aye omeleza ukufikelela. Oku kuphakamisa imibuzo emitsha ngemida yamandla karhulumente: Ingaba urhulumente angamnqanda ummi ohlala khona ukusuka ekuhambeleni ukuya kwelinye ilizwe ngenxa yokuqhomfa? Ingalawula namayeza okuqhomfa nge-telehealth? Ukurhoxa okungasayi kuqhubeka, kwaye indima karhulumente ihlala ingacacanga. Ukuvunywa kwe-mkelo ye-Difristone ye-Dignogne ice icelwe enkundleni, kunye neNkundla ePhakamileyo ukuba iqhubeke nolukelo lwe-email. Le miqatha yemeko ayiqhubene.

Indima Yemfundo Ekuxhaseni Amalungelo Asekuhlaleni

Imfundo esemthethweni nengacwangciswanga ngokomthetho ithetha indlela abantu abawaqonda ngayo amalungelo abo kunye neengxaki zembali ezabakhuselayo. Imfundiso yamalungelo abantu ezikolweni idla ngokuphikisana. Impikiswano engobugxwayiba bengcamango yohlanga, iprojekthi yonyaka ka-1619, kunye nemigangatho yokufundisa ibonisa ukungavumelani okunzulu malunga nokuba urhulumente (ngeebhodi zesikolo neendlu zowiso-mthetho) umele aphembelele kangakanani abafundi.

Iintlangano ezininzi zisebenzela ukukhuthaza imfundo karhulumente kunye nolwamkelo lwamalungelo abantu. Inkqubo [[FLT: 0] iSiphakamiso se-, esungulwe yinkqubo yeJaji yeNkundla Ephakamileyo uSandra Day O’Connor, inikela ubuncwane bamahhala ukunceda abafundi baqonde isakhiwo sikarhulumente kunye nokubaluleka kokuhlola nokulingana. uSocial Let Letry Law Concencerty Centers[ inkqubo (ngoku ebizwa ngokuba yiShoonda yokwaMgaqo-mthetho) ibonelela izinto kwimbali yamaLungelo ango, ukulwa kobulungu, ukulwa kobunganga bobumhlophe, kunye nokulwa okuqhubekayo kwe-emperence. Aba bafundi banceda ngokurhala ngokunzulu ukuba igunya likarhulumente lisetyenziswe ekucinezeleni nakukhulula.

Kumgangatho weyunivesithi, izifundo zomthetho wezomGaqo-siseko, inzululwazi yezobupolitika, kunye nezifundo zase-Afrika eMerika zihlolisisa ulwalamano olugqwethekileyo phakathi kwegunya likarhulumente kunye namalungelo omntu ngamnye. Izintlu zobunani obufana ne- American Liberesties Union (ACLU) kunye ne-NAACP Esemthethweni UGQUP [[FLT]] I-FUMATIS] iqeqesha isizukulwana esilandelayo sabameli abasemthethweni nge-internasties kunye neenkqubo zobudlelane. Amaphulo oluntu, iifilimu ze-fayifilim, kunye namajelo-computha adlala indima ekufundiseni amalungelo akhoyo kawonke asekuhlaleni. Umzekelo, umbutho wokulungisa ubukhoboka obukhobondloshelwa ngemisebenzi yobugcisa kunye nemicimbi yoluntu, imibuzo yemicimbi karhulumente yolawulo lwentlalo-ntle.

Ukubotshwa kwabantu abaselula kunyuke kwiminyaka yakutshanje, ngokuhamba kwabafundi abahambayo, ngezabelo zokuvota, kunye nokuthatha inxaxheba ekulawuleni imipu, ukutshintsha kwemozulu, kunye nokugweba kobuhlanga. Le misebenzi ifuna ukuqonda indlela yokucela urhulumente, yokucwangcisa, nokusebenzisa iinkundla ukucelw' umngeni. Ngaphandle kwemfundo eqinileyo ngemida yegunya likarhulumente, abemi basenokungakwazi ukuyiqonda xa loo mida iphulwa, okanye indlela yokubeka amagosa etyala ngayo.

Isiphelo: Iprojekthi engagqitywanga

Imbono yembali ngamalungelo abantu ityhila ukuba imida yamalungelo karhulumente ayilungiswa ngokusisigxina. Ukusukela kwixesha lokusekwa kokugxininiswa kwamalungelo emvelo nokwahlulwa kwamagunya, ngemfazwe yamakhaya kunye nenzame yokuqinisekisa ukulingana, kwiphulo lolawulo lwamalungelo oluntu lokungenelela lorhulumente, kwaye kumadabi akhoyo ngokutshayelela ukuvota, ukuzimela, kunye nokuzichaza.

Izigqibo zakutshanje zeNkundla ePhakamileyo, zitshintsha inkqubo yephondo, kunye neengcangca ezinika intsebenziswano eziqhubekayo zalo mda. Isigqibo se-Dobs sajika iminyaka engamashumi amahlanu yesiqalo; [ iSikolo seSizwe se-Shelby [ sokulawula ukugcinwa kwamalungelo okusemthethweni okusemthethweni kokuvota; kunye nemibandela emitsha efana nomlinganiselo we-intanethi yokuthetha, umgaqo wobuchule obuyedwa, kunye nobuchule bokuhlola iyakuphakamisa imibuzo emitsha ngegunya likarhulumente kunye nemfihlolo nganye. Umzabalazo ofuna ukuqwalaselwa, ukubhaqwa, ukubhaqwa, nokuqondwa okunzulu kwemigaqo yemithetho karhulumente kwi-demokhrasi. Njengoko uLouis Bredians wabhala “nge, iingozi eziphambili zenkululeko ezithe ngqo kubantu, kodwa ngokuqwalalwqithingongongongongongongongongongongongongongongongongongongongongongongongo1919