Table of Contents
Imida Yokuzifaka Kwingozi Ephindwe Kabini Kwiimeko Zobunqolobi Nokhuseleko Lwesizwe
Umgaqo wengozi ephindwe kabini umi njengesiseko somgaqo wenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho kwimigaqo emininzi esemthethweni, owenzelwe ukukhusela abantu kwiimeko ezinzima zokuzanywa kabini ukwenzela isono esinye. Uqulethe amaxabiso okugqibela, okusesikweni, kunye nokhuseleko kwiimeko zikarhulumente. Noko ke, xa izikhalazo zibandakanya ubugrogrisi okanye imicimbi yokhuseleko lwesizwe, lo mgaqo welitye elinqabileyo udibana neemeko ezingaqhelekanga. Iinkundla kunye nemithetho yowiso-mthetho ikhutshelwe iimpazamo ezithe zathiwa ngaphandle kwemfundiso ezivumela ukutshutshiswa, ukwahlulwa kolawulo oluphezulu, kwanemibutho yabemi exubileyo. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa ukwakhiwa kwemiqathango yengozi ephindwe kabini, iingxaki ezithiye zabangelwa ngabanqolobi neemeko zokhuseleko zesizwe, kunye noxinelo oluqhubekayo phakathi kwamalungelo abantu ngabanye nokhuseleko.
Isiseko Esisemthethweni Sengozi Ephindwe Kabini
Imvelaphi Nendlela
Ukwalelwa kokungangeni yingozi ephindwe kabini kuvela kumthetho wamaRoma kunye nomthetho wamandulo, kufumana intetho kwisiminxi somthetho samaNgesi . Nenemo debet bis voxari — akukho mntu ofanele avuswe kabini ngenxa yesizathu esinye. EUnited States, ifakwe kwiSindululo sesihlanu soMphengululo: "Nabani na umntu akasayi kubekwa phantsi kweso sisongelo esifanayo sobomi okanye ilungu lomzimba." Inkundla ePhakamileyo yasebenzisa esi sicwangciso ukuchaza ukuqulungela ukuqhuba nge-Gqizelo lwe-1449 ku-Ben. Mary v[FLT] [FLD] [12].[FLD] [3]
Uzithethelela okungundoqo komthetho kumiselwe kakuhle: kuthintela urhulumente ekusebenziseni iingtshutshiso ngokuphindaphindiweyo ukuhlasela umntu, kuphepha ukungabikho kokusesikweni kufuna umntu akhusele ukukhusela isityholo esinye ngaphezu kwesihlandlo esinye, kwaye kugcine ukugqibela kwemigwebo. Njengokuba iJaji eMnyama ibhalile kwi- Breaw v. United States [1957], ikhusela ngokuphindwe kabini ingozi "umntu ngamnye angazisweli kwingozi yokuvavanywa kunye nokuqiniseka okunokwenzeka okunokwenzeka okungaphezulu kwetyala."
Xa Ingozi Incamathisela
I-jeopardy idibanisa kwityala labachopheli-tyala xa inkundla yabachopheli-tyala ibekwa kwindawo yokuhlala kwaye ifungwe ngokusemthethweni; kwityala lebheri, xa ingqina lokuqala lifunwe. Kwisingqiniso setyala, iyamatheliswa xa inkundla ivuma isicelo. Xa ityala likhokelelwa, ityala elilandelayo livalwa ngaphandle kokuba ityala elichaseneyo lisebenza — njengetyala elingafanelekanga lokubonisa ukuba kukho okuyimfuneko okanye isibheno esinempumelelo esikhokelela kwityala elitsha.
Imida Ekhoyo: Indlela Ephindwe Kabini Ngayo Impahla Ebolekisayo
Imfundiso Yabalawuli Abahlukeneyo
Mhlawumbi owona mda ubalulekileyo kwiimeko zokhuseleko lwesizwe kunye nomthetho obalulekileyo yimfundiso ye- ehlukeneyo yabalawuli . Phantsi kwalo mthetho, icandelo eliphindwe kabini lengozi alikuxhasi ukutshutshiswa ngokulandelelana kwee-compuls ezahlukeneyo zehambo efanayo. Isenzo esinye esiphula umthetho karhulumente worhulumente, okanye imithetho yamazwe amabini ahlukeneyo, ingabekwa ngokwahlukeneyo ngaphandle kokucaphukisa uHlanyuso lwesihlanu. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yaphinda yaqinisekisa le mfundiso kwi-Ggash v. United States[FLT:] (20) (20)), iphethe ukuba urhulumente kunye norhulumente wohlukeneyokuba ziinjongo eziphindiweyo.
Kumongo wehlabathi lonke, oku kuthetha ukuba umntu angalingwa kwelinye ilizwe ngenxa yetyala elinxulumene nobugrogrisi aze aphinde abekwe ityala elinye kwelinye ilizwe ngenxa yezenzo ezingaphantsi. Umzekelo, ukrokrelwa ebhaqwe eYurophu ngenxa yokuceba uhlaselo usenokujamelana netyala kwilizwe laseYurophu naseUnited States, ngokunganiki khuseleko luphindwe kabini. Le mfundiso iyakwazi ukuphelisa iingcinga ezibini xa amazwe ahlukeneyo emisela ulawulo olumanyeneyo kumthetho womnqamlezo wamaphekula.
Izikhalazo Ezahlukileyo, Ihambo Efanayo
Olunye ulwahlulo olungundoqo luvela kuvavanyo [ olufanayo. Uvavanyo lwe-stimer uvavanyo, olusuka ku-[[FLT:] sickburger v. i-United States [1932], ibuza ukuba ngaba ulwaphulo-mthetho ngalunye lufuna ubungqina belungu elinye elingakwenziyo. Ukuba iimpazamo ezimbini zinezinto ezahlukeneyo, zithathwa njengezibasolwayo ukuba zivela kwihambo efanayo. Oku kuvumela abatshutshisi ukuba bamangalele ummangalelwa ngezenzo ezininzi ezigqithisileyo — umzekelo, ukuququzelela, ukuxhasa izinto eziphathekayo, nokusetyenziswa kwezixhobo zomonakalo — ukuba zizisa iziphumo ezilandelenezo ezithe ngqo okanye ezithe ngqo, ezithe ngqo, ezinikwayo, ezibonelelwa kwityala eliqhelekileyo.
Kwimeko zobugrogrisi, urhulumente usoloko ethumela iqhinga "lokubhaqa ngokuphandle": ukuzisa izityholo zozungu, ukuhlasela okuncinci kohlaselo kwenye, okanye ukusebenzisa izaphuli-mthetho zokufuduka njengendawo yokufakela. Inkundla yeZibheno zeNkcubeko yesibini, kwi yeUnited States/. Feliciano [1993], ibambelele ekubeni ukuvalwa kwetyala le-narctics ubalo akuzange kubekwe mvuso kamva ngenxa yolwaphulo-mthetho oluvela kwiziganeko ezifanayo, ngenxa yokuba izinto ezohlukeneyo.
IiKhomishini Zomkhosi Neenkundla Zaseburhulumenteni
Ubukho benkqubo engokwasemthethweni efanayo — iinkundla zolwaphulo-mthetho zoluntu kunye neekhomishini zomkhosi — budala omnye umsantsa. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. kwi- United States exp rel. Toth v. Quarles (1555]) icebisa ukuba ingozi ephindwe kabini ingakuthinteli ukuvavanywa komkhosi emva kwetyala elifanayo ukuba ityala lomntu waseburhulumenteni lisebenza iimfuno zolawulo olwahlukileyo. Ngoxa kamva amatyala athe anciphisa imfundiso ekhoyo, [[FLT]] ] umqhubi wezolawulo ubonise uvavanyo lwetyala luye lungathethelelwa ukuba uvavanyo lomkhosi lungacinelwa koonke nakungekho mthethweni kwezomkhosi. [ngezoburhulumente ezininzi] kodwa umbangoonqanwano oluthe lwamanyukelelwa yityala [RFFom: [3] [4] [4] [evFladman] [est],Old, O
Ukufihla imfihlo yokhuseleko lwesizwe kunye nezinye iindlela zokungachongi
Imida ephindwe kabini yengozi iyakhutshwa ngokusetyenziswa kogcino-mthetho olunokwahlula-hlula , ilahleko yemali ekhoyo [, kwaye isohlwayo solawulo [[[FLT:]] [iiii-arhente] ezinokulandela okanye ziqalise ingtshutshiso yolwaphulo-mthetho. Umntu ngamnye okhululweyo ityala lisenokuba lisenotshaba olulwayo, oluxhotyiswe ekundululweni, okanye olunezinto ezishiswe kwimimandla yokhuseleko yesizwe. La manyathelo awathathwanga "Intengiselwa" iinjongo eziphindiweyo zobungozi, nokokuba abeka imiqathango enzima kwinkululeko nempahla. [FLT:] Inkundla ephakamileyo yezomthetho yezomthetho yezomthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-ognobhusayithi ye-mthetho. [kuhlul] [v6]
Ingqikelelo yothelekiso: Indlela Ezinye Iinkqubo zomthetho Ezidityanisiweyo Eziphindwe kabini
IUnited Kingdom NeNdibano YaseYurophu
Ukusondela kweBhunga laseUnited Kingdom kwingozi ephindwe kabini kwafunyanwa utshintsho olubalulekileyo emva konyaka wama-1990. ICriminal Justice Act yasungula unikezelo lokuzinzisa iityala ezinzulu — kuquka ubugrogrisi — apho "butsha nobugrogrisi" buvela khona. Oku kwawuphelisa ngokunempumelelo umgaqo opheleleyo wolwaphulo-mthetho olungcwabileyo. Ngaphezu koko, iNkundla yaseYurophu yamaLungelo aNgamalungelo abantu, [[FLT: 0]] [[FOT]] [[FLT] [2009]], yasebenzisa iSiphakamiso esibanzi seSiphakamiso sesi 4 somthetho somthetho. No 7 seNgqungqungquthelano yaseYurophu ethetha amalungelo abantu, ekwakuthintelwa ngokuphindiweyo (""""") ngenxa yezomthetho ohlukeneyo. Kodwa iUK ine deroggn-evos , ngokukodwa ngomlinganiselo othelelwa yi-grogrisi, i-ogrogrisi yemeko [R.[2] [2]
I-European Union [[FLT: 0] I-Ne- kwi Idem Imithetho
Kulo manyano lwaseYurophu, iSiqendu 54 seSchengen Convention yeSchenten, neEU Charter of Fundament Rights simisela i-bis ezinamandla ze-biem kumgaqo othi lo mgaqo uqulunqwa ngowesibini kuwo nawuphi na urhulumente olilungu ugwebo lokugqibela lunikezelwe kwelinye ilungu lesizwe ukwenzela izenzo ezifanayo. INkundla yeJaji ye-European Union, Ukoskoski[ [206], yakholelwa ukuba lo mgaqo usebenza naxa ityala lokuqala ligqibele ekugxothweni ngaphandle kwetyala. Noko ke, amatyala obugrobi adla ngokubandakanya ukuququzelelana izivumelwano zokhuseleko zesizwe, njengoko iSigqeqeshina (2] sesivumelwano sokhuseleko Yurophu, esivumela amalungu awo ukuba akhusele oku kukhuselwa izilangazelelo.
IKhanada NeNkundla Yezaphuli - mthetho Zezizwe Ngezizwe
ISicatshulwa seKhanada samaLungelo neNkulumbuso, (1990) (1990), phantsi kwecandelo 11(h), iqinisekisa ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo ayizange ikhuseleke ngokuphindiweyo, kodwa iNkundla ePhakamileyo iqaphele ukungacaluli okuchaseneyo kwemithetho ekwimiqathango eyahlukeneyo. R. Van Rassel [1990], iNkuMbuso-mthetho we-Onkelo] (1990), iNkubethelele ukuba ukutshutshiswa kwetyala eUnited States akukhange kufakwenga ityala elilandelayo kwimiqathango yeKhato yeKhabhi yeKhabhi yeKsi ekwindla elingu-20 kodwa ivumele ukuvavanywa "lolo olulolololonke" kunovavanyo lwendlela yezenzo zomthetho ze-CMgaright". Oku kuhambelana kwisigaba somthetho ohlukeneyo lwezizwe ngezomthetho zesizwe, ukuba ingekho zigwegwegwegwegwegwegwegwe, ityala eliphantsi kwetyala lesizwe, ukuba linjalo lingekho linye li
Uhlolisiso Lolwaphulo-mthetho Kwimingxuma Ephindwe Kabini Neenkqubo Zobuphekula
Ityala LaseZacarias Moussaoui
Zacarias Moussaoui, "umphangi wesi-20th," watyholwa eUnited States ngenxa yeqhinga elinxulumene nohlaselo lwe-11. Ukuvavanywa kwakhe kwaphakamisa amaxhala engozi aphindwe kabini xa urhulumente wayefuna ukuchaza ubungqina obunokuthi busetyenziswe ekuqaleni kwezinye iintshaba. Ekugqibeleni, uMussaoui wacela ityala kwaye wagwetyelwa ubomi entolongweni. Noko ke, ukuntsonkotha kwetyala kwabalaselelwa ngendlela eyahlukeneyo — uzungu, ubugrogrisi, kunye notshabalalo lwenqwelo moya — ngokucacileyo kunokuziswe kwimiqathango eyahlukeneyo okanye izikhalazo ezahlukeneyo ngaphandle kokuxhokonxa ityala ngokuphindiweyo, kuba ityala ngalinye lifuna iziphelo ezahlukileyo.
I Isikhonkwane Ukuqhushumbisa: Pan Am Flight 103
Ukuqhushumbisa kweLockerbie kubonisa imida ephindwe kabini yobugrogrisi bezizwe ngezizwe. Abarhanelwa ababini baseLivan bavavanywa phantsi komthetho waseSkotlani kwinkundla ekhethekileyo eNetherlands. Enye yakhululwa ityala; enye yabanjwa. Ummangalelwa omsulwa, Al-Amina Khalifa Fimah, kamva akajongani nanye ityala elibhekene netyala eliphindayo, kodwa urhulumente waphakamisa umbuzo: ngewayezabe uzame kwelinye ilizwe, njenge-United States? Ngaphantsi kwe-U.S., umthetho wangaphandle ogwetyiweyo akagwebi i-abhedengu, ngenxa yokuba umlawuli wangaphandle uthathwa njengomlawuli owahlukeneyo. Noko ke, urhulumente waseU.S. ukhetha ukungaphicosheli ngenxa yokunga oku, oku kubonakalisa ukumanyana okuphindwa okuphindiweyo okuphezulu kwe-ugrogriki.
Guantánamo Bay Detaines
Detaines ezibanjelwe eGuantanámo Bay ziye zajongana neemeko eziphinda-phindiweyo. Abanye bavavanywa phambi kolawulo lomkhosi kwaye bahlulwa okanye bagwetywa, kodwa bahlala entolongweni njenge "imikhosi yamajoni" nasemva kwesigwebo sabo. Al Bahlil v. United States [2011] [2011], iD.C. isekethi iseke inkxaso yezinto eziphathekayo yokuxhasa ubuphekula, yayilulwaphulo-mthetho lwemfazwe oluxhotyiswe ngokuphaza kwemikhosi, kodwa iNkundla ithelekelelo ephezulu yarhoxanduliswa. Umbuzo wokuba ngaba ukunyanzelwa kwetyala ngokulandelayo koburhulumente kuhlala kungena ngxaki. Ulawulo oluphindiweyo lusoloko lungalungiswa. Ulawulo olunobangela ukusongelo olubiniyo lunga. [12]
Impikiswano Yemigaqo-nkqubo: Utshintsho okanye Ugcino lwala Manyathelo
Iimpikiswano Zezahluka-hlukeneyo
Abaxhasi bokuvumela ukutshutshiswa okuninzi kwiimeko zabanqolobi baphikisa ngelithi, ukusetyenziswa kwemiqathango engaqhelekanga yezisongelo zabanqolobi zale mihla — ngokufuthi eziphuma zweni zonke, ezibhanga, nezijikelezayo — kufuna ukuvumelana nomthetho. Isenzo esinye sisenokungavisisani nemithetho emininzi yamazwe, sibandakanya ubugcisa kunye nemikhosi, kwaye sivelise ubungqina obutsha ekuhambeni kwexesha. Le mfundiso yahlukeneyo, kule mbono, ithetha ngolongamo lwamazwe ngamazwe ngamanye yaye ivumela igunya ngalinye ukuthethelela izilangazelelo zawo. Ngaphezu koko, ukhuseleko lwesizwe lunganyanzelela ukuba ucingelano kulawulo okanye luzanywe emkhosini kwanoburhulumenteni emva kokuba inkundla ithe yamapolisa, ukuze kuthintelwe ukukhululwa kwabantu abayingozi abasenokubandakanyeke kwimi bozungu.
Iimpikiswano Zokomeleza Iinkuselo
Abahlalutyi bathi ngaphandle kokuchaphazeleka ngokufanelekileyo kwemiqathango ephindwe kabini kwityala lokhuseleko lwesizwe, beshiya abamangalelwa besengozini yokuxhatshazwa ngurhulumente. Babonisa ubungozi bokufumana "ukuthenga izinto ezifanelekileyo" ngabatshutshisi — befuna igunya lobuhlobo emva kokungathethelelwa kwenye indawo — kunye nobunzima bengqondo kunye nemali bemivavanyo emininzi. I-American Liberties Union (ACLU) iphikisa ukuba ukuvumela ukutshutshiswa okuqhubekayo kwezenzo ezifanayo kuthob'ehla inkqubela yenkqubo efunekayo kwaye icela isiphazamiso esiphezulu. Umphengululi-mthetho u-Erin Murphy uqaphele ukuba imfundiso eyahlukileyo yezolawulo "permits zombini zorhulumente zonganiso zombini kunye norhulumente ukuba imangalise ihambo efanayo, ebangela ingxaki ngokukodwa xa omnye wabo batshutshiswa ngezopolitiki okanye ukhuseleko lwesizwe.""
Izibhengezo Zokuguqula Umthetho
Abanye abaguquli baye bacebisa ukuba ibeke imilinganiselo yemfundiso yolawulo eyahlukeneyo ngokukhethekileyo kwiimeko zabanqolobi, mhlawumbi ngomthetho okanye ngokutshintshwa komgaqo-siseko. Umzekelo, "Ukuziphatha Okufanayo, Iinjongo Ezifanayo" imodeli iya kubeka ityala lesibini ukuba eyokuqala yeyezenzo ezifanayo, ingaba ngumlawuli. Abanye baxhasa ukunyanzelisana phakathi kwemithetho elawulayo ukuze kuphetshwe iziphumo eziphindwayo. Indlela yokuvumela iiprojekthi kuphela apho "butsha nobungqina obungafihliyo" bumele umhlaba ophakathi — ugcina ugqibelo kodwa uvume ukuba kunokwenzeka kokufunyanwa kokhuseleko olunzulu lwesizwe kamva.
Imigudu Yokuvisisana Kwamazwe Ngamazwe
Kumgangatho wamazwe ngamazwe, izivumelwano ezifana neNgqungquthela yeNtlangano yeNtlangano yeGawulayo ye-Compris yoBubhombu bobuGrogrisi kufuneka ukuba kubekho amazwe anokuchaphazeleka okanye acinge ukuba anokuchanabeka, kodwa angathethi ngengozi ephindwe kabini. IKhomishini yoMthetho wezizwe ngezizwe ihlole "ibhizi elikwisiqhubi" umgaqo wolwaphulo-mthetho lwezizwe ngezizwe, kodwa inkqubela iye yacotha. Imodeli ye-Romete inika isiseko esinye, kodwa isebenza kuphela ukuchaza ukuba lilungu le-ICC. Isivumelwano sehlabathi lonke esibandakanya ubugrogrisi obudileyo obuquka ukungxwayibhithi obuphindwe kabini bunga ukunciphisa umngcipheko wokutshutshiswa, kodwa imfuneko yokulalanisa kulawulo.
Isiphelo
Umgaqo wengozi ephindwe kabini, ngoxa ungundoqo kubulungisa obusemthethweni, usebenza phantsi kwemiqathango enzima xa ujongene neemfuno zokhuseleko lwesizwe. Imfundiso eyahlukeneyo, ukukho kweenkqubo zomthetho ezihambelanayo, yenza iindlela ezininzi ukwenzela ukuba oorhulumente batshutshise umntu izihlandlo ezingaphezulu kanye kwihambo efanayo. Ezi zibonisa ukungavisisani okunzulu phakathi kwemigaqo yokugqibela kwasemthethweni kunye nemfuneko yokhuseleko lukawonke wonke ngexesha lokusongela komda onqamlezileyo.
Njengoko ubugrogrisi buguquka, iinkqubo zomthetho kufuneka ziqhubeke zimisela ulungelelwano phakathi kwamalungelo abantu ngabanye nokhuseleko olumanyeneyo. IUnited States, iUnited Kingdom, iEuropean Union, kunye namanye amazwe ziye zasebenzisa eli lizwe ngokwahlukileyo, kodwa akukho nanye eye yazicombulula ngokupheleleyo iingxabano. Iminyaka ezayo iza kuphinda zibone ukuhlaziywa nokusetyenziswa komthetho njengoko iinkundla zizama ukulwa neziganeko ezincinane — njengokutshutshiswa kwabalwi bangaphandle abasele bevavanywe yinkundla yasekuhlaleni kwiingingqi zemfazwe.
Ekugqibeleni, umlinganiselo wengozi ephindwe kabini kumatyala obugrogrisi asiyongxelo yobugcisa nje kuphela kodwa yimbonakalo yemilinganiselo enzulu: ukuba lungafikelela kangakanani umva uluntu olunokuwuhlawula xa lujamelene nezisongelo ezikhoyo, nendlela oluya kukhuselwa ngayo ngokusemthethweni nakwabo batyholwa ngezona zenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho zinzulu. Impendulo ayipheli, kwaye impikiswano iya kuqhubeka ibumba umthetho ophikisana nobunqolobi kangangamashumi eminyaka ezayo.