Ingcamango yokuphanda kukarhulumente imela ukusilela okuqatha kokulungelelana okuluqilima phakathi kwegunya lesizwe nenkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Iyenzeka xa iqumrhu elilawulayo lisebenzisa igunya elingaphaya komlinganiselo ovunyelwe ngumthetho, umgaqo-siseko walo, okanye imigaqo esisiseko yebutho elikhululekileyo. Nangona oorhulumente benikwe amandla asisiseko okuncedisana ukuze bagcine ucwangco, banike iimpahla ezidibeneyo, kwaye baqinisekise ukhuseleko lwesizwe, amandla okusetyenziswa kwalo kanye igunya labemi elimele lisetyenziswe ngokuchasene nomthetho, ukukhusela okuhlala kuyingozi. Ukuqonda imbonakalo yembali neyole mihla exhobileyo akuyo nje iyindlela yemfundo; kuyimfuneko ukugcina iimpahla eziqinileyo, nokuqinisekisa ukuba isakhiwo somgangatho wenkqubo yedemokhrasi. Eli nqaku lihlola iimfezeko zabo, ukuchasana iiziphumo zabo, iiziphumo zabo eziqatha, iziphumo zabo, kunye nezingqwalanisa iiziphumo zexesha elizayo.

Iindlela zokuphanda ziyahluka. Zingabonakala njengendlela ehamba kancinci, encinci, encinci ngokunesantya, ukuqokelela imiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo okanye ukwanda kwemigaqo yesebe elilawulayo. Okanye, zinokuba nesibindi, zibambe ngamandla ngokufuthi zidinwe luloyiko, yimfazwe, okanye yingxaki yezoqoqosho. Kwimeko nganye, ulungiso olukhawulezileyo luyafana: ukhuseleko, okanye ukhuseleko, okanye okulungileyo. Ukanti, iziphumo ezinde zisoloko zichaza umfanekiso ontsonkothile nowothusayo. Ukusuka ekuphembeleni kwehabeas corpus ukuya kujongwa ngabantu abahlala ezindaweni ezithile, ukuvavanisa okudlulileyo, ukuqhatha kwe-edebugroziqu nokufuna ingcuka.

Imbali Yokulawula Okugqithiseleyo Kurhulumente

Umlo nxamnye namandla onyanzelo udala njengorhulumente. KwiRoma yamandulo, iBhunga leNtsimbi ngamaxesha athile lalinika umlawuli onegunya elipheleleyo ngamaxesha ongxamiseko, uqheliselo olwathi ekugqibeleni lwavulela indlela ulawulo lobuzwilakhe olusisigxina lukaJulius Caesar kunye nesiphelo seRiphabliki. Isithethe somthetho samaNgesi sinika esinye isiseko esibalulekileyo, ingakumbi idabi elichasene neStar Chamber, inkundla edume kakubi ngemithetho yayo efihlakeleyo, imicimbi efihlakeleyo, nokuthuthunjiswa ukuze ikhuphe izono.

OoTata abaFunyiweyo be-United States, abafundwa ngokunzulu kwezi ngxelo, bakha ngenyameko inkqubo yomgaqo-siseko elungiselelwe ukuthintela ukuxinana kwamandla. Badala urhulumente odwelise amandla adweliswe kunye nemiqathango ecacileyo, njengaleyo ibekwe kwiBhili yamaLungelo. Noko ke, ubuhle obungabonakaliyo bomgaqo-siseko obhaliweyo abuqinisekisi ukugcinwa kwawo. IBhunga lokuqala lawisa iAlien neSigqibo seMithetho, ibonisa ukuba isilingo sokuhlasela asizange sisuke kwisihlalo samandla. Umthetho ka-Abraham Lincoln uphe ka-Habeas kwimfazwe yobuCiviln neWoock Wilson ngethuba lemfazwe yemfazwe yemfazwe ne-Espion neSpege kunye neSquation ngexesha lemfazwe yehlabathi I ibonisa ukuba uxinzelelo lwesizwe lwemfazwe yesizwe, uklolonga-Exmaster ukhul.

  • IRiphabliki yeRoma ukuya kuBukhosi: Utshintsho lwabonisa indlela amandla okwexeshana ongxamiseko anokuba ngawo asisigxina kulawulo lolawulo olungqwabalala.
  • Icandelo leSchreenshot: uphawu lwegunya lobukumkani elilawula amalungelo omthetho aqhelekileyo kunye nobulungisa obuqhelekileyo.
  • [[UMTL:0] Amatyala angaphambili aseMelika: Imisebenzi ye-Alien neMicimbi, Ukususa imfazwe yamakhaya, kunye neWWI-era abeka iipateni ezikhathazayo zokucinezela ukungavumelani.

Isifundo Setyala 1: IAlien NeZenzo Zokuzalwa (1798)

Ithe yamiselwa phakathi kwe-"Quasi-Ir" neFransi, imithetho emine eyaziwa njengeAlien kunye neSedtions yamela uvavanyo lokuqala olukhulu loLawulo Lokuqala. Iqela loManyano, elilawula zombini iiKhonklane kunye nomphathi phantsi kukaJohn Adams, yayisoyika impembelelo yamaFrentshi kunye nabaphambukeli ababefuna ukuxhasa iPalathisi echaseneyo neDemocratic-Republican. Umthetho wokwenyusela umgangatho wokuhlala kwabantu abahlala kusuka kwisihlanu ukuya kwishumi elinesine leminyaka. Umthetho ka-Alien Friens Act wavumela umongameli ukuba agxothe nabani ongengomntu ongomntu ozizizii-Citaze "oseluxolweni nokhuseleko lwe-United States" iAlien Neemperence Act yokugunya umongameli okanye abemi bohlanga bohlanga oluno oluno lwesizwe ukuba bambandezweni lwemfazwe.

Noko ke, owona mthetho udume kakubi kwabane yayingumthetho weSedition Act. Kwakwenza kube lulwaphulo-mthetho ukupapasha "ubuxoki, ihlazo, kunye nokubhala okunolunya" ngokuchasene norhulumente wase-U.S. Congress, okanye umongameli. Lo mthetho wawusisixhobo esingqalileyo sokulwa nochasana kwezobupolitika. Iziphumo zawo zazikhawulezile kwaye zinzima. Abantu abangaphezulu kwezibini babanjwa phantsi koMthetho, kuquka abahleli bamaphephandaba kunye nelungu leBhunga, uMatthew Lyon, owayevalelwe ngenxa yokugxeka uMongameli Adams. Ijaji kunye nabagwebi babezi bobuProfestiant, beguqulela iinkundla ukuba zibe zizizixhobo zokucinelela i-Rhulumente.

Imiphumo Nezityholo

IZenzo zabangela isiphango somlilo sezobupolitika. uThomas Jefferson noJames Madison bawaqulunqa ngasese amatyala eKentucky kunye neVirginia, aphikisa ukuba amatyala anelungelo lokuphelisa imithetho karhulumente engekho mgaqweni. Ngoxa imfundiso yokutshitshisa imbali yayo iyakuba nembali yayo, ezi zigqibo zafaka impikiswano engqonge amalungelo karhulumente njengendlela yokuhlola urhulumente. Ungquzuzulwano lwamatyala lwalukhulu kwaye lwanikela ngqo kunyulo lukaThomas Jefferson ngo-1800, ngokufuthi zibizwa ngokuba "Inguquko yowe-1800". UJeffeffer waxolela abo babanjiwe phantsi koMthetho we-Sdition, kwaye imithetho engathandwayo (ngaphandle kweAnti ye-Alive Acts Act) yavunyelwa ukuba iphele okanye iphinde isetyenziswe. Isifundo sathiwe: [FLD:]

[[UMTL:0] Funda umbhalo wokuqala weAlien neZenzo zeSizwe kumaZiko ogcino-lwazi.

Isifundo Setyala 2: INqanda yamaJapan (1942 - 946)

Mhlawumbi esinye seziganeko ezilusizi kakhulu zorhulumente othe waphangwa kakhulu kwimbali yeMelika kwenzeka ngexesha lemfazwe yehlabathi II. Emva kohlaselo kwiZibuko iPearl, uMongameli uFranklin D. Roosevelt wasayina uMthetho olawulayo wama-9066, ogunyazisa abaphathi bemikhosi ukuba bakhethe "imimandla yemikhosi" apho nabani na okanye bonke abantu babenokususwa khona. Ngoxa lo mthetho ungakhankanyanga iqela elithile lohlanga, wasetyenziswa kuphela ukususa nokunyanzela ukuba bade basheke abantu abamalunga nekhulu elinamashumi amabini anesithathu abanohlanga lwamaJapan, abahlala eMerika. Esi senzo sakhuthazwa kukucaphulwa ngocaphulo lwesizwe, ikhwele lezoqoqosho, kunye nemfazwe.

Ubulungisa bukarhulumente `imfuno yemikhosi kunye nokhuseleko lwesizwe' ngokujongwa. Akukho kubanjwa kwabantu abaninzi okufanayo kwasetyenziswa kumaJamani okanye kuma-Italian, phezu kwayo nje i-U.S. imfazwe neJamani ne-Itali. Iinkampu zokulwa, ngokungekho mthethweni zibizwa ngokuba "ziko lokufudusa iindawo," zazibekwe kwiindawo ezibharhileyo kwaye zijikelezwe zixhotyiswe ngocingo oluvaliweyo kunye nabalindi bezixhobo. Iintsapho zanikwa iintsuku zokulahla amakhaya azo, amashishini, kunye nezinto zobomi, zifumana ilahleko yemali exhotyikiselwa kwimimiselo yezigidi zezigidi zeera.

Imiphumo Esemthethweni Nentethelelo Yohlanga

INkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa ukungavumelani komgaqo-siseko kwityala elifana nelokuba Korimatsu v. United States (1944), isigqibo ebesikho ukususela ngoko salahlwa ngokubanzi. UJavalk Robert H. Jackson wachasa kwityala, elumkisa ukuba umthetho uzakulala "njengesixhobo esilayishiweyo" esilungele naliphi na igunya elizayo lokusebenzisa. Emashumini eminyaka kamva, kwavela ubungqina obuye bavela ukuba amagosa karhulumente, kuquka uMlawuli weFBI J. uEdgar Hoover kunye neSebe lemfazwe, bakhupha ingxelo yokuba amaJapan angenasongelo somkhosi.

Imiphumo yezi zinto ziphangaleleyo. Izizukulwana zabandezeleka ngenxa yokulahlekelwa zizimele, isidima, kunye nokukholosa ngorhulumente wazo. Umthetho we-Civil Liberties Act ka-1988, watyikitywa nguMongameli Ronald Reagan, wacela uxolo ngokusemthethweni kwaye walungiselela ukuphinda kuphinda ku-phinde ku-phinde ku-R320 000 kwi-internee ekhoyo. Ityala lingumzekelo onamandla wokusilela kwe-judiciary ukukhusela iqaqoba elincinane, hayi nje isininzi.

[[UMTL:0] Ukukhutshwa kwamava angaphakathi eJaphani eMelika ngemisebenzi yezobugcisa eSmithsonian Magazine.

Ufundo lwetyala 3: Umthetho weUSA PTRIOT (2001)

Ukuhlasela kwabanqolobi ngoSeptemba 11, 2001, kwabangela ukuba kufuneke ngokukhawuleza nangokugqithisileyo ukuthintelwa korhulumente ukuze kuthintelwe uhlaselo lwexesha elizayo. IBhunga lakhawuleza ukudlula iUniting and Wongmenting America ngokunikezela ngeeXhosa zezixhobo ezifanelekileyo ezifunekayo kwi- Intercept ne-Obstrupy Terrorism (USA PARITRIOTT) Athatha iintsuku ezingama-45 nje emva kohlaselo. Lo Mthendeleko wandisa ngokuphawulekayo ukujongwa kwamandla omthetho kunye namaqumrhu agunya aqikelezayo. Ngexa abaxhasi besithi uyimfuneko ukudibanisa amachaphaza kwihlabathi langoku, i-Inforvox, i-Freeciographicism, amaqela asekuhlaleni alumkisa ngokuzinzileyo.

Amalungiselelo aphikisayo oMthetho aquka "iiintambo zokuhamba" (ezivumela ukujongwa komntu kunokuba kube sisixhobo), ukufikelela kwi "iirekhodi zeshishini" (kuquka iirekhodi zethala leencwadi, iifayile zezonyango, kunye ne-data yemali) phantsi kwecandelo 215, kunye nokusetyenziswa kwe-assunce of National Security Letts (ii-NS) eziqulethe imiyalelo ethintela abamkeli ekufumaneni isicelo. Urhulumente waphikisa ezi zixhobo ukuba zibaluleke ekuthinteleni izicwangciso zobugqhinga. Kodwa ke, ingakumbi isebe lobugcisa-jaji, lityhile ukuxhatshazwa kokuxhatshazwa nokuphathwa kakubi kwala mazwe.

Izityhilelo Zekhephu Neenguqu Ezisemthethweni

Umlinganiselo wemeko yokuhlola owakhiwa phantsi koMthetho wePatriot kunye nomthetho olandelayo watyhilwa kuluntu ngo-2013 ngomcuphi u-Edward Snowden. Izambulo zabonisa ukuba i-National Security Agency (MESA) yayiqokelela ii-metadata zefowuni zezigidi zabantu base-Merika abaqhelekileyo ezingakrolelwanga nakuluphi na ulwaphulo-mthetho. Oku kutyhilelwe kwabangela ingxoxo yomlinganiselo wokhuseleko nowehlabathi lonke. Iinkundla ekugqibeleni zawisa phantsi inkqubo yokuqokelelwa kwemibhobho yee-mipu ezibhiyo njengengekho mthethweni, kwaye iBhunga yadlulisela uMthetho we-USA Freedom ngo- 2015 ukuphelisa lo mthetho.

Iziphumo zoMthendeleko woMthendeleko wePatriot zisavakala. Ukuthemba ukuphatha kukarhulumente ugcino-lwazi lobuqu kuthe kratya. Isiphumo "sokusebenza" kwinkululeko yokuthetha kunye nonxulumano . Apho abantu abaziphetheyo ngenxa yokoyika uhlolo lukarhulumente, yingozi ebhaliweyo egqugqithileyo. Le ngxoxo iyaqhubeka namhlanje ukuvulwa kwekhowudi "emva" kunye nokuvuselelwa kwamandla okuhlola angenazintloni phantsi kwecandelo 702. Imbali kaPatriot Izenzo zibonisa ukuba imithetho igqithe kwimeko yoloyiko, ngaphandle kokwenza ulawulo oluqinileyo kunye nolawulo, ngokukhawuleza inokuba zizixhobo eziqhelekileyo zokuhlola.

[[UMTHETHO: 0] IACLU inika ukurhoxiswa okunenkcukacha kwamandla okuhlola phantsi koMthetho wePatriot..

Ulawulo oluphezulu lwendawo

Isiganeko sobuqhetseba bukarhulumente asiphelelanga kwiincwadi zembali. Iziganeko zakutshanje zinika ulwamkelo oluninzi lokuhlalutya uxinzelelo oluqhubekayo phakathi kwamandla karhulumente kunye namalungelo omntu ngamnye. Indyikitya yokufa yehlabathi lonke yenze urhulumente womhlaba wonke wabona ukuba imigaqo engathethekiyo kwintshukumo, kwindibano, nakwezorhwebo. Ngoxa iingxaki zempilo yoluntu ngokucacileyo zithethelela umgangatho othile wongenelelo longxamiseko, ubude boxandeko, ukuvalwa kwesikolo, kunye nemiyalelo yokugonya iintsolo eshushu malunga nokuba ezi zinto zimele zilungelelwane nemilinganiselo yempilo kawonke okanye zigqithise negunya elifanelekileyo likarhulumente.

Ngokuhambelana noku, ukukhula kwesebe lolawulo kuye kwaphakamisa inkxalabo ngesebe elingu-"lesine likarhulumente". Amasebe alawulayo, asebenzisa amandla amakhulu okwenza umthetho, anokubeka ityala elisisigxina kumavoti, angenza ngokunempumelelo imithetho echaphazela phantse zonke iinkalo zobomi bezoqoqosho nobobuqu. Le mfundiso engengomthetho egunyaziyo, umgaqo osemthethweni obamba iBhunga lawo lowiso-mthetho lingenako ukudlulisela igunya kwisebe lolawulo, ifuna ukuvuselelwa kwakhona. Ngaphezu koko, ingxakisswana ngemithetho yomgangatho ophakamileyo ethintela ukuqhotyo, okanye ukulawulwa kwentetho yezentlalo-ndaba-ndaba, okanye ukuvalwa kwezifundo ezikolweni zibalasezikolweni zibalase ukubila okungapheli komthetho-Melika-American, apho imidathatho eyahlukeneyo karhulumente evava imidabayo, apho imida yamandla awomntu ngamnye.

Ukunyamezela Izifundo Zoluntu Olukhululekileyo

Ukusebenzisa izifundo ezikweli tyala kutyhila umlinganiselo ongaguquguqukiyo. Okokuqala, umthetho womthetho mawube ngumqalisi, hayi nje olandela isithethe. Urhulumente angalandela eyakhe imigaqo esemthethweni kwaye aqhubeke nokungekho sikweni. Inkululeko yokwenyaniso ifuna ukuba imithetho ehambelana nemigaqo yesiseko yenkqubo efanelekileyo, ikhuselwe, kwaye ichazwe ngokukhululekileyo. Ukuvavanywa okubhaliweyo komgaqo-siseko kufuneka kuxhaswe ngabantu kunye nesigqeba esizimeleyo sokuyinyanzela.

Okwesibini, amandla omthetho anezixa eziyingozi. Amaqondo enziwe ngokuphendula kwingxaki asoloko ephila ngaphandle kwengxaki. 'ubuchule' buba yinto entsha. Iingxelo ezinamandla zokutshona kwelanga, ezifuna ukuphinda kugunyaziswe ngemithetho-siseko, zizixhobo ezibalulekileyo. Ngoko ke zikhuphiwe kwaye zicofwe ngoomatshini boluntu abathanda ukukholelwa. Umatshini wadlala indima yobuqhawe kwiwaka lee-1790 ukuchasa i-Sdelition Act, kanye njengokuba iintatheli kunye nabavuli bezi mini benqanawa bebhekile bebhekile ukukhuthuza ukukhutshelwa kwemeko yokhuseleko lwesizwe.

Okwesithathu, ukunyathela nokuhlulwa kwamagunya akuyoengcamango eziphelelwe lixesha. Ziinkqubo zokwakha zenkululeko. Xa isebe okanye umgangatho karhulumente usiba noxanduva, amanye angasebenza njengovavanyo. Amagqwetha eRhulumente athetha urhulumente, iiKhomyunjane ezingavumiyo ukuxhasa iinkqubo zokungathathi nxaxheba, kwaye abagwebi abachasa imiyalelo yegunya eliphezulu elingekho mthethweni zonke ziimpawu zenkqubo eyenzelwe ukwahlula igunya nokukhusela umntu. Isifundo sabemi singahlala sithandabuza ukunikezelwa kwamandla, hayi indlela elungileyo eyayithethileyo injongo. [[FLT.2]

Isiphelo

Imbali karhulumente yokuphanda luntsomi oluluqikelelo olululo kwilaphu lohlanga lonke. Ukusukela kwiAlien kunye neSedition Zenzakaliso ukuya kujongwa kakhulu kwexesha lamanani, ipateni iyaphinda: intlonge yoloyiko okanye unxunguphalo, ukunikwa amandla angaqhelekanga, ulungelelwaniso, kunye nokugwetyelwano ekugqibeleni neziphumo zenkululeko elahlekileyo. Uphando oluphakanyisiweyo apha asizizo ziganeko zodwa kodwa kunoko ziimpawu eziphindaphindwayo zocelomngeni ekulawuleni.

Ukuqonda le mizekelo yembali linyathelo lokuqala ekwakheni ukhuseleko oluqinileyo kwikamva. Ibutho labantu elikhululekileyo alixhomekekanga ekulungelweni kweenkokeli zalo, kodwa kumaqumrhu anamandla ezixhobo zamaphephandaba akhululekileyo, ijaji ezimeleyo, igosa eliphaphileyo, kunye nokunamathela ngokungqongqo kwimiqathango yesiseko somgaqo-siseko. Njengoko sijongene nocelomngeni olutsha oluchaseneyo, ubuchule bempilo yehlabathi, kunye nezisongelo eziphazamisayo kukhuseleko lweenkokeli. Uvavanyo olupheleleyo kurhulumente othe phikelelekileyo noosomashishini abafuna amalungelo abo angaguquki, kwaye amandla ahlala ethembekile, ahlala ethembekile kwimvume yabo abalawulwayo.