Imisebenzi yeeNkundla Ezahlukeneyo: Isikhokelo ukuya kwinkqubo yomthetho yase-U.S.

Inkqubo yomthetho yaseUnited States yakhiwe kwinethwekhi yeenkundla ezisebenza kumanqanaba orhulumente nawomanyeneyo. Inkundla nganye inendima eyahlukileyo, ulawulo, kunye neembopheleleko. Ukuqonda le misebenzi asiyoyabafundi bomthetho kuphela i̬ inceda wonke ummi aqonde indlela okusesikweni okulawulwa ngayo, indlela iimpikiswano eziconjululwa ngayo, nendlela imithetho etolikwayo kwaye inyanzeliswe ngayo. Le nkundla nganye ikhokela iqhekeza iintlobo ezahlukeneyo zeenkundla, imisebenzi yazo engundoqo, iintlobo zamatyala abawaphathayo, nesizathu sokuba olu lwazi lungabafundi, abafundisi, nabantu ngokubanzi.

Inkqubo yeNkundla yamaDual: Umanyano noRhulumente

I-United States isebenza phantsi kwenkqubo yenkundla ezimbini, okuthetha ukuba kukho iinkqubo ezahlukeneyo kodwa ezingenanayo zeenkundla zephondo nezorhulumente. Esi sakhiwo sisekelwe kuMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S., onika urhulumente wesizwe amagunya athile ngeli lixa ugcina onke amanye amagunya kumazwe. Ngenxa yoko, iinkundla zephondo zisingatha amatyala abandakanya imithetho karhulumente, umGaqo-siseko, kunye neembambano phakathi kwamazwe okanye phakathi kwamaphondo okanye amaqela angaphandle.

Iinkundla Ezimanyeneyo

Iinkundla zomanyano zinegunya elilinganiselweyo, oko kukuthi zingawava kuphela amatyala agunyazisiweyo ngumGaqo-siseko okanye imimiselo karhulumente. Inkqubo yenkundla yelifa lemveli ilungelelaniswe kwithala leencwadi ezintathu ezingundoqo:

  • U.S. IiNkundla zeSithili ̵ Ezi ziinkundla zamatyala zenkqubo karhulumente. Zikho iinkundla zesithili ezingama- 94 kulo lonke ilizwe, kwaye ziva amatyala oluntu nawolwaphulo-mthetho aphakama phantsi komthetho wezwe. Imizekelo iquka iimpikiswano ezisemthethweni, imiba yerhafu karhulumente, kunye namacala okurhweba ngeziyobisi. Iinkundla zesithili zikwasingatha ukwahlukahlukana kwemiqathango yemithetho elawulayo i̬ iingxelo phakathi kwabemi bomazwe ahlukene apho imali exabanayo ingaphaya koo-R345 000.
  • U.S. IiNkundla zezibheno & #811; zikwabizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zesiphaluka, ezi ntetho ziphakathi zihlola izigqibo ezivela kwiinkundla zesithili nakumasebe olawulo olusemthethweni. Kukho iinkundla zesiphaluka ezili-13 zezibheno. Umsebenzi wazo ophambili kukuqinisekisa ukuba umthetho usetyenziswe ngokuchanekileyo ngexesha lokuvavanywa kwetyala. Azibambi iityala ezintsha okanye zive ubungqina obutsha; endaweni yoko, zihlola ingxelo yokuvavanywa kwetyala kunye neempikiswano ezingomthetho.
  • U.S. Inkundla ePhakamileyo & #821; Inkundla ephakamileyo yohlanga, iNkundla Ephakamileyo ingumxhasi wokugqibela womthetho wezwe notoliko lomgaqo-siseko. Iva inani elincinane lamatyala nyaka ngamnye, likhethelwe kwinkqubo ebizwa ngokuba writ yecretiari[. Izigqibo zayo zimisela imizekelo ebophelela zonke iinkundla ezisezantsi.

Ukongeza kula maqondo amathathu angundoqo, inkqubo yesizwe iquka iinkundla ezikhethekileyo ezinjenge U.S. Bankruptic Courts, U.S. iNkundla yerhafu[, iU.iNkundla yeNkqutyana yeNkcubeko yeNkcubeko yeNtlalo yeTradebe [[FLT]].[FLT], i-U.S, ephethe izibheno zemvume nezibheno ezithile ngokuchasene norhulumente. Ezi nkundla zikho ukusingatha iindawo ezithile ezifuna ubuchule obunzulu.

Iinkundla Zelizwe

Iinkundla zelizwe zinegunya jikelele — zingava phantse naluphi na uhlobo lwetyala ngaphandle kokuba ligcinelwe iinkundla zelizwe. Urhulumente ngamnye unendlela yakhe yokusebenza yenkundla, kodwa uninzi lulandela isakhiwo esinee-tiliti ezintathu ezifanayo:

  • IiNkundla eziPhambili (okanye iiNkundla eziPhakamileyo) ̫ La ngamahashe asebenzayo enkqubo karhulumente. Ziva amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho angekho mthethweni, amatyala abandakanya imali, imicimbi yomthetho wentsapho (i-divoce, ukugcinwa kwabantwana), kunye namatyala e-probate. Amazwe amaninzi akwanezigwebo ezinyisileyo zetyala elincinane, njengeenkundla zendlela, iinkundla zetyala ezincinane, iinkundla zomthetho-mvume, kunye neenkundla zomasipala.
  • Ezikhongozeli eziphakathini eziphanda iiNkundla & #821; Asinguye wonke urhulumente onenkundla ephakathi (malunga namashumi amane) kodwa kwezo zinjalo, ezi ntena zihlola izigqibo zenkundla ezivavanyiweyo zezobutyala ngenxa yeempazamo ezisemthethweni. Zinceda inkundla ephakamileyo yombuso ukukhulula inkundla ephethe nasiphi isibheno.
  • Inkundla ePhakamileyo yeSizwe ̵ inkundla ephakamileyo kwilizwe ngalinye. Iva izibongozo ezisuka kwiinkundla eziphakathi (okanye ngqo ukusuka kwiinkundla zamatyala kumazwe amancinane). Iinkundla eziphakamileyo zelizwe zinegunya lokugqibela kumthetho karhulumente, kuquka nomgaqo-siseko, ngaphandle kokuba urhulumente ubandakanyekile.

Inkqubo yenkundla entlu - mbini ivumela amazwe ukuba aphathe imicimbi emininzi yasekuhlaleni ngeli xesha urhulumente wesizwe ethetha ngemicimbi yesizwe. Ukuqonda ukuba liliphi inkundla elinegunya kwimeko ethile elinyathelo lokuqala ekuqhubeni inkqubo engokwasemthethweni.

Imisebenzi yeCore yeNkundla nganye

Ngoxa iinkqubo ezingqalileyo zingafani, inkundla nganye kumgangatho ngamnye ifeza imisebenzi emithathu emide: ukufumana izibakala, ukusebenzisa umthetho nokuqinisekisa ukuba kulungile ngokuhlolisisa.

Iinkundla Zokuchophela Ityala

Iinkundla zamatyala zilapho ziqala khona. Imisebenzi yazo eyintloko iquka:

  • [[UMTL: 0] Ifakti- ekhoyo ̵ Ijaji okanye abachopheli-mthetho bafumana ubungqina, amangqina, kwaye bagqibe oko kwenzeke ngokwenene. Le yindima ebalulekileyo kuba izibakala ezifunyaniswe ekucinyweni zidla ngokuba zokugqibela.
  • Isebenzisa umthetho ̵ Ijaji igqiba ukuba yiyiphi imithetho esemthethweni esebenzayo kwaye iyalela abachopheli-mthetho ngokufanelekileyo. Kwityala lebheri (akukho jaji), ijaji yenza zombini ezi nyani kunye nokwenza isigqibo esisemthethweni.
  • [[Umthetho:0] ukhupha imigwebo yetyala ̵ Emva kwetyala, inkundla ikhupha isigqibo (kwityala labachopheli-tyala) okanye umgwebo (kwityala lesihlalo). Oku kuqukwa izigqibo kwaye kungaquka imiyalelo yomonakalo, imiqathango, okanye izigwebo zolwaphulo-mthetho.

Iinkundla zetyala zisoloko zisebenzisana ngqo nenkqubo yomthetho. Ijaji yequmrhu licacisa ukuba iinkundla zesithili ziyindawo yokungena" phantse kwityala ngalinye lorhulumente.

Inkundla

Iinkundla ezimangalelwayo aziqhubeli matyala matsha. Endaweni yoko, zihlola ityala lenkundla echongiweyo ukuqinisekisa ukuba umthetho usetyenziswa ngokufanelekileyo kwaye amalungelo ommangalelwa akhuselwe. Imisebenzi yawo iquka:

  • Ukuqwalasela ufako ̵ Inkundla yesicelo ifunda iirekhodi, ivavanya ubungqina, kunye nojongo lwentshukumo olwenziwe ngexesha lokuvavanywa.
  • Imposiso ezisemthethweni ̵ inkundla igqiba ukuba ijaji echophele ityala lenze impazamo ekusebenziseni umthetho. Iimpazamo eziqhelekileyo ziquka imiyalelo engalunganga yabachopheli-tyala, ukuvumela ubungqina obungagqibekanga, okanye ukutolika kakubi ummiselo.
  • [[FLT: 0] Ikhupha isiphumo & #821; Inkundla ye appellete ingasiqinisa [ [ii-afti] isigqibo senkundla esisezantsi, [[[FLT:]] [[FLT]] ijijeka, [[FLT:] i [[FLT]] ne (isiphelo) umba wetyala elitsha, okanye [[FLT:]] ugwebo. ityala, iintelekst ityala.

Iinkundla ezininzi zetyala ziva amatyala kumacandelo amathathu abagwebi, nangona amanye amatyala abalulekileyo evalwa [[FLT: 0] enen'umthi we-'[FLT' [[1] (ngazo zonke iijaji kweso siphaluka). Umgangatho wokuhlola uyahluka kuxhomekeka ekubeni umba wento (obalulekileyo) okanye (ongowomthetho).

IiNkundla Eziphezulu

Iinkundla eziphezulu, zorhulumente noorhulumente, zisebenza njengenkundla yeenkomfa zokugqibela.

  • [[NTLALA: 0] Uhlolo lwe-judicial & #821]; amandla okubhengeza imithetho okanye imisebenzi yegunya elilawulayo engamiselwanga. Lo msebenzi udumile kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S., emiselwe kwi Barry v. Madison [183]).
  • Ukusombulula iimbambano ̵ Inkundla ePhakamileyo yase U.S. isombulula ukungavisisani phakathi kweenkundla zesiphaluka zezibheno, iqinisekisa ukucaciswa okufanayo komthetho karhulumente. Iinkundla eziphakamileyo zelizwe zenza okufanayo kurhulumente wazo.
  • [[FLT: 0] ibeka umzekelo [[FLT: 1] ̵ Izigqibo ezivela kwinkundla ephezulu zibopha zonke iinkundla ezisezantsi kulo lawulo. Lo mgaqo we stare decis uqinisekisa uzinzo nokuxelwa kwangaphambili kumthetho.

INkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ineemvume zokulawula i̵ kukhethwa ukuba ngawaphi amatyala okuva. Kwizibongozo ezimalunga nama-7 000 nyaka ngamnye, iNkundla inikela uhlolo kungaphantsi kwekhulu. Oku kukhetha kuvumela iNkundla ukuba iqwalasele amatyala abalulekileyo esizwe.

Iindidi Zetyala Ngaphaya Kweenkundla

Uhlobo lwetyala lugqiba ukuba yiyiphi inkundla engayi kuyiva. Nantsi iinkalo ezingundoqo:

Ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho

Amatyala e-CIII abandakanya iimbambano phakathi kwamaqela azimeleyo (abantu, amashishini, imibutho) okanye phakathi kweqela norhulumente xa urhulumente engachopheleli tyala. Imizekelo iquka iimpikiswano zesivumelwano, iimpikiswano zokonzakalisa, iimpikiswano zempahla, kunye nemicimbi yomthetho wentsapho. Umba othe ngqo (umbutho) ufuna imbuyekezo okanye umgaqo wenkundla, hayi isohlwayo. Umgangatho wobungqina ngu "ophakamiso lobungqina" (ngokunokwenzeka kakhulu ukuba akunjalo).

Amatyala angoonobumba aziswa ngurhulumente (umtshutshisi) kumntu okanye kwiqumrhu elityholwe ukwaphula umthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho. Urhulumente ufuna isohlwayo esifana nentengiso, ukuvalelwa, okanye ukuvalelwa entolongweni. Umgangatho wesiqinisekiso ngu "Ongenakuthandatyuzwa ngokusengqiqweni"̬ umqobo omkhulu. Amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho ahlulwa ngokwee-mthetho (ulwaphulo-mthetho olukhulu olufana nokubulala, ukuphanga) kunye nezenzo ezingafanelekanga (ezingaboni zizinto eziqhelekileyo ezingobusela).

Iinkundla zetyala zisingatha amatyala angoorhulumente nawamatyala, kodwa iinkqubo zahlukile ngokuphawulekayo.Ngokomzekelo, abamangalelwa ngamatyala banelungelo elisemthethweni lokuchonga ityala kunye nokumela inkundla esemthethweni.

Umbuzo womanyano . Ukudityaniswa kodidi

Ukuze lichotshelwe ityala enkundleni karhulumente, kufuneka lithethwe:

  • Ukuvela phantsi komthetho wesizwe (ulawulo lwetyala), olufana nemali ephantsi komGaqo-siseko, ummiselo wesizwe, okanye isivumelwano sorhulumente; okanye
  • Amaqela aqukayo avela kumazwe awahlukeneyo (ulawulo lwezikhundla) kwaye abandakanya ixabiso kwimpikiswano elingaphezulu kwee $75 000 (R160 000).

Iinkundla zeli lizwe, ngokwahlukileyo, zinegunya eliqhelekileyo kwaye zinokuva naliphi na ityala elingangeni kwicala lorhulumente kuphela.

Ityala Elikhethekileyo

Amanye amatyala afuna iinkundla ezizodwa ngenxa yobugcisa okanye imeko engaqhelekanga:

  • [[FLT: 0] BANTY[[FLT]] ̵ Iphethwe kuphela ziinkundla zolawulo lwamatyala karhulumente. Ezi ntendelezo zinceda abantu kunye namashishini ukuba baphinde balungelelanise okanye bakhulule amatyala phantsi kweBhankiruptic Code.
  • .Patent kunye nephawu ̵ Inkundla yezibheno yase U.S. yeFederal Libazisa zonke izibheno ezisemthethweni. Iimeko ezincinci zidla ngokubandakanywa imibandela entsonkothileyo yenzululwazi nobugcisa.
  • [[UMTL: 0] Tax
  • [[UMTL: 0] Imithetho epheleleyo ̵ Ikhowudi yeJaji yoMkhosi woKhuselo imisa iinkundla-mthetho zamalungu enkonzo, ngezibheno kwiNkundla yezibheno zeU.S. ukwenzela imikhosi exhobileyo.
  • Juvenile kunye nentsapho ̵ iinkundla zikarhulumente zahlulelene ngokukhethekileyo ngenxa yobuhlolo, ukhuseleko lwabantwana, nemicimbi yentsapho efana noqhawulo-mtshato kunye nokufumana umntwana.

Ukuqonda ukuba yiyiphi inkundla esingatha uhlobo lwetyala olubalulekileyo kuye nabani na ofuna uncedo olusemthethweni okanye ukukhusela ekumangalelweni.

Indlela Yomzekelo Ngenkqubo

Umzekelo wendlela imisebenzi yeenkundla ezahlukeneyo esebenza ngayo kunye, cinga ngemeko eqhelekileyo. Inkampani igwetyelwa ukwaphulwa kwesivumelwano kwinkundla yesithili yesithili kuba amaqela asuka kumaphondo awahlukeneyo kwaye umlinganiselo wetyala ungaphezu kwama-R35 000. Inkundla yesithili ityala. Ijaji ifumanisa ukuba inkampani yayaphula isivumelwano kwaye ihlawula ii-$500,000 zomonakalo.

Inkampani ibhenela kwiNkundla yezibheno yase-U.S. yeNkundla yeZibheno yeso siphaluka, iphikisa ngelithi ijaji yetyala yanika imiyalelo engafanelekanga. Inkundla yetyala ayiwuhloli umbandela ongokwasemthethweni, ayifumani mpazamo, ize iqinisekise. Inkampani icela iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.INkundle yase-U. ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo iya kuphendula, iya kuphulaphula iimpikiswano zentetho ize inikezele isigqibo sokugqibela. Ukuba iNkundla iyakukhanyeza ukubukeza (oko kuyinyaniso), isigqibo senkundla ye-Appellatte siyama.

Ukuba ityala libandakanya umthetho karhulumente kuphela (umz., impikiswano ngesivumelwano somhlaba phakathi kwabemi ababini beli lizwe elinye), ibiya kuqala kwinkundla yamatyala karhulumente, ngoko yiya kwinkundla yetyala eliphakathi (ukuba iyafumaneka), kwaye ekugqibeleni kwinkundla ephakamileyo yeli lizwe. Iinkundla zelo zwe aziyi kubandakanywa ngaphandle kokuba kuvele umbano karhulumente, njengocelomngeni olungokomgaqo-siseko.

Le ndlela ibonisa [[FLT: 0] umsebenzi wophindo oluqhelekileyo weenkundla: iinkundla zokuvavanya zifumana izibakala zize zisebenzise umthetho; iinkundla zezomthetho ezichanekileyo; iinkundla eziphakamileyo zinika isiphelo kunye nokulingana.

Isizathu Sokuba Ukuqonda Kubaluleke Kwinkundla

Ukuqonda imisebenzi yeenkundla ezahlukahlukeneyo kuyingenelo, kufundisa yaye kuyingenelo kuluntu.

Iingenelo Zemfundo

Kubafundi nabafundisi, ukufunda ngenkqubo yenkundla kuphuhlisa ubuchule bokucinga obubalulekileyo. Abafundi bahlolisisa amatyala okwenene asenkundleni, baxubushe ukuqiqa okusemva kwezigqibo zomthetho, kwaye bavavanye impembelelo yemizekelo esemthethweni. Oku kunyusa ukuqonda indlela umthetho obumba ngayo ibutho labantu. Amaqumrhu anjenge Cornell Information Institute kunye ] no-[FLT]OYEZ[] unika izinto ezifikelelekayo zetyala kunye noshicilelo oluvakalayo lwenkundla ephakamileyo.

Ubungqina

Xa abemi besazi ukuba yiyiphi inkundla esingatha imbambano ethile, bayakwazi ukusebenzisa imibandela yabo engokwasemthethweni. Umzekelo, umntu ofuna ukufaka ingxelo encinane kufuneka aye kwinkundla encinane yetyala lasekuhlaleni, hayi kwinkundla yesithili yephondo. Ukuqonda imisebenzi yenkundla kukhuthaza ukuvota okuthengiweyo kunyulo olunolwazi kunye namanyathelo anxulumene nenkqubo yokulawula. Uluntu olunolwazi lusengozini yokuhlonela izigqibo zenkundla nokuthatha inxaxheba kubomi bentlalo-ntle.

Izicelo eziSebenzayo

Nabani na onokubandakanyeka kwityala le-̵ njengommangalelwa, ummangalelwa, ubungqina, okanye umlawuli wejaji ̬ ukwazi iindima zokuchotshelwa kwetyala kunye neenkundla zetyala kunciphisa ukudideka nexhala. Kwakhona kubalaselisa ukubaluleka kokumela okusemthethweni. Umzekelo, isibheno asikokuhlasela okwesibini kwi-apile, asibhekiseli kwiimpazamo ezisemthethweni, hayi kubungqina obutsha. Ukuqonda oku kunokukunceda ukujonga ukuba ngababheno kusini na.

Isiphelo

Inkqubo yomthetho yase-U.S. sisakhiwo esintsonkothileyo kodwa esingqinelanayo apho inkundla nganye ineenjongo ezahlukileyo. Iinkundla zoManyano kunye nezorhulumente zihlala kunye, zisingatha iintlobo ezahlukeneyo zamatyala asekelwe kwigunya. Iinkundla zamatyala zimisa izibakala, iinkundla ezilawulayo zihlola iimpazamo, kwaye iinkundla eziphakamileyo zimisela imizekelo engqinelanayo. Ngokuyiqonda le misebenzi, abafundisi, kunye nabemi bafumana umfanekiso ocacileyo wendlela okusetyenziswa ngayo okusesikweni kwinkundla yedemokhrasi. Umthetho uxhomekeke kwiinkundla ngokwazo kodwa nakwiinkundla eziziqondayo iimbopheleleko zikawonke, kodwa nakukokuwo onke amalungelo abo anokuwaqonda nawasebenzisa ngokunjalo amatyala, ukukhusela nokuxhasa kwawo amalungelo.