Ingxingo enyamezeleyo: Iimfazwe Zokwenene Zehlabathi Eziphakathi Koorhulumente Noorhulumente Bomanyano

I-United States yasekwa kuvavanyo olucekethekileyo lolawulo olwahluleleneyo olubizwa ngokuba lulawulo lorhulumente. Ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini, ulwalamano phakathi koorhulumente borhulumente norhulumente worhulumente luye lwaba ngumngqungqo onamandla, osoloko uthanda ukuxabana, umngqungqo. Ngoxa umGaqo-siseko uchaza isiseko, imida esebenzayo yegunya ivavanywa ngokuqhubekayo ngomthetho, imigaqo yenkundla, kunye nokuthanda kwezobupolitika. Eli nqaku lihlola iimfazwe eziliqela zeli hlabathi lokwenene eziye zachaza zaze zachaza ngokuzichaza ulungelelwaniso lwamandla phakathi kwamazwe nohlanga.

Ukuqonda ezi ngxabano kubalulekile kungekuphela nje kubafundi belizwe kodwa nakumntu ngamnye ohlala phantsi kwemiqathango emibini yolawulo. Le mizekelo ilandelayo ibonisa indlela urhulumente esebenza ngayo ngokusetyenziswa kwezixhobo, ngokudla ngokungqubana okunzulu, kodwa rhoqo ngaphakathi kwinkqubo yomgaqo-siseko owahlukeneyo.

Isiseko somGaqo-siseko somanyano

UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. wahlula amagunya phakathi korhulumente worhulumente kunye namazwe. ISupremacy Claus (Artle VI, Claus 2) iqinisekisa ukuba umthetho karhulumente ngumthetho omkhulu welizwe, ulawula imithetho engqubanayo karhulumente. Noko ke, ugcino lweSihlalo seshumi lokuLandliswa koMdalelo olunganikwanga kurhulumente worhulumente kumazwe okanye kubantu. Oku kuthintela-mandla. "" phakathi kobukhulu borhulumente kunye nolawulo lorhulumente."=ingcambumbulwana yayo yonke imiba ephambili yemfazwe ephakathi kwe-Ropublic.

Ababhali-mbali nabaphengululi bomthetho badla ngokulatha kwimizekelo emithathu yemithetho elawulayo: imilinganiselo emibini yesizwe (ikhekhekhe elincinane), apho umgangatho ngamnye usebenza ngokwawo; igunya lorhulumente (ikeyiki encinane), apho basebenzisana khona ngeembopheleleko; kunye negunya lorhulumente elingurhulumente, apho iingcinezelo zikarhulumente zichaza ukuba zithathe imigaqo ethile. Imfazwe yeContemporary idla ngokuwela kwicandelo elilandelayo.

1. IMbutho yaMalungelo kaNondyebo: IGunya loMbutho loManyano loLuntu. Uhlanganiso lweSizwe

Ukuchaswa kweRhulumente kuNxalabo

Mhlawumbi olona ngquzulwano lukhawulezileyo phakathi kukarhulumente norhulumente wesizwe lwenzeka ngexesha leMbutho yamaLungelo kaNoval we-1950 kunye no 1960. Amazwe aseMazantsi agcina ixesha elide inkqubo yocalulo olusemthethweni lobuhlanga phantsi kwemfundiso ye "lokuhlukana kodwa lilingana," emiselwe Pnety v. Ferguson [1896]. Urhulumente wengingqi, noko ke, waqalisa ukuguqula ukuma kwakhe ngesigqibo somqoka weNkuhlela ephakamileyo Brown v. Brown b. Board yemfundo yezemfundo [54], eyavakalisa ukuba izikolo ezingootshilo-omatilo.

Amaphondo amaninzi, ingakumbi kumzantsi onzulu, awuchasa ekuhleni umthetho. Ngo1957, iRhuluneli u-Orval Faubus yase-Arkansas yabiza umkhosi wesizwe ukunqanda abafundi abathoba abantsundu ukuba bangene kwiSlittle Rock Central High School. UMongameli Dwight D. Eisenhower waphendula ngokugunyazisa imikhosi yesizwe iArkansas kunye nokuthumela umkhosi we-U. Oku kwakukukuthethelelwa ngqo kobungangamsha borhulumente kumzamo wokuphelisa umthetho karhulumente.

Umthetho womanyano kunye noMlawuli weSizwe

Le mbambano yakhula ngokudlula koMthetho we-Civil Rights ka-1964 kunye noMthetho we-Voting Rights ka-1965. Le mithetho ibalulekileyo yalela ucalucalulo kwiindawo zikawonke-wonke nokuvota. Amazwe anjengoMississippi no-Alabama asabela ngeengxaki ezingokwasemthethweni yaye kwezinye iimeko, ngokuchaswa ngogonyamelo ngurhulumente namagosa asekuhlaleni. Urhulumente worhulumente wasebenzisa amandla awo okuqinisekisa ukuba abasebenzi, kuquka abasemalembeni kunye nemiyalelo yenkundla, ukuphelisa ukuthintelwa kwemeko.

Isifundo esisuka kweli xesha sicacile: xa amalungelo karhulumente esetyenziswa ukuthoba ukhuseleko olusisiseko lomgaqo-siseko, urhulumente wesizwe unegunya kunye nembopheleleko yokungenelela. IMbutho yaMalungelo e-Civil ihlala ingumzekelo onamandla woburhulumente obusetyenziswa njengesixhobo sokulungisa, urhulumente onegunya owephula inkululeko yabantu.

2. Ukubekwa kwe-Marijuana ngokomthetho: ILatoratori Yolawulo-moya Engquzulwaneni noMbutho

Ulingelo Lwesizwe Luyaqala

IKhalifoniya yaba lizwe lokuqala ukubhalisa ngokusemthethweni umya wezonyango ngowe-1996, ivavanya ngokungqalileyo uMthetho we-Guedited Substances Act (CSA) ka-1970, othi umlinganiselo weStem-gedyuli Indim-mon ingumsi ongekho mthethweni. Ukususela ngoko, amazwe angaphezu kwama-20 aye agunyazisa ukuzonwabisa ngomsayini, kwaye amalunga nama-40 aye abhaliswa ngokusemthethweni. Kodwa, phantsi komthetho karhulumente, umya awukho mthethweni, kwaye i-Enkorganizementment Administration (DEA) iyaqhubeka isithiwayibeka ingumsebenzi oyingozi.

Le ngxabano asiyoyoyoyomfuziselo. Amagosa omthetho oManyano anegunya lokuhlasela amashishini asebenza ngokusemthethweni phantsi komthetho wesizwe. Ngexesha loLawulo lwe-Obama, iSebe leJaji likhuphe iCole Meyandmum, eyacebisa abatshutshisi ukuba balususe umthetho onyanzelisayo kumaphondo ngenkqubo enamandla yokulawula. Ulawulo lweTrump Administration lurhoxisile olo khokelo, ludala ukungaqiniseki. Phantsi koLawulo lwe-Biden, iSebe loBulungiseleli ligcine ukusondela kwezandla, kodwa umngcipheko osemthethweni uhleli.

Imiphumo Esebenzisekayo Kumazwe

Amazwe anjengeColorado, iWashington, ne-Oregon akha ushishino oluninzi kwi-cannabis esemthethweni, abangela amawaka ezigidi ngengeniso yerhafu kunye nokuvelisa amashumi amawaka emisebenzi. Noko ke, amashishini ajongene neengxaki ezininzi ngenxa yemfazwe karhulumente: akanakukwazi ukuphelisa iindleko zoshishino phantsi komthetho werhafu karhulumente (IRC 76280E), asoloko ekhatywa iinkonzo zokubhanki, kwaye abasebenzi bawo basengozini yokutshutshiswa ngurhulumente. Intengiselwano yezo mazwe ayinakuphumelela ngenxa yokuthutha umyayilo ngaphaya kwemigca karhulumente.

Ukungathandi kukarhulumente worhulumente ukucombulula le ngxabano kudala impikiswano: amabinzana asebenza njenge "imisebenzi yolawulo-melo," kodwa uvavanyo lwawo lusebenza phantsi kwesisongelo esizingisileyo sokhukuliso lwezwe. Iziganeko zakutshanje, ezifana nomthetho we-SAFE Banking Act kunye nokuphinda kutshayelwe komsayini, zibonisa ukuba utshintsho lusenokuba luza, kodwa ngokule ncwadi, uxinezeleko luhlala lungapheliswa.

3. Ukunyanzeliswa koMkhosi: Izixeko Ezingcwele noLawulo lweRhulumente

I-SB 1070 yase-Arizona kunye nemida yamagunya karhulumente

Inkqubo yokuthambisa ingulawulo olucacileyo lwesizwe phantsi kwamandla omGaqo-siseko owenzelwe ukutshintsha indalo kunye nemicimbi yamanye amazwe. Sekunjalo, amazwe aye azama ngokukhula ukumisela amanyathelo awo okunyanzelisa ukufuduka. Owona mzekelo udumileyo yiSB' 1070 (2070), eyafuna amagosa amapolisa ukuvavanya ukufuduka kwawo nawuphi na umntu athe ngokufanelekileyo wakrokrela ngokungekho mthethweni kwaye wawenza ulwaphulo-mthetho lombuso kubaphambukeli abangabhalwanga abaphambukeli ekufuneni umsebenzi.

Urhulumente wengingqi uququzelela i-Arizona, ephikisa ngelithi umthetho wabhukuqa igunya likarhulumente. Arizona v. United States (202], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawabetha ngokungqongqo amalungiselelo angundoqo omthetho, iphethe ukuba ukunyanzeliswa kwabantu abafudukayo ngumsebenzi oyintloko karhulumente. Inkundla yavumela ukuba "ndibonise amaphepha akho" ilungiselelo lokuma, kodwa phantsi kwemiqathango. Ityala laqinisekisa ngokuqinileyo loo mithetho karhulumente ayinakuyiphazamisa inkqubo yoluntu yokufuduka.

Izixeko Ezingcwele Nexesha leTrump

Kutshanje, kuye kwavela ungquzulwano phezu "kwezi zixeko ezitsha" `izigwebo ezimisela intsebenziswano namagunya okufuduka karhulumente. ULawulo lweTrump oludume ngokusongelwa luza kugodlela iminikelo yezorhulumente kwizixeko zengcwele, ngokukodwa eChicago. Iinkundla zithintele kakhulu ezi mizamo, zilawula ukuba urhulumente wesizwe akanakudibanisa iimeko ezintsha, ezingangqinelaniyo zokuxhasa iBhunga elicebelwe ezinye iinjongo (City of Chicagov.Sques ,2018]).

I-Biden Administration ithathe indlela eyahlukileyo, kodwa iyaqhubeka ibona ukungqubana namazwe afana neTexas neFlorida, athe asungula imithetho elwa nomthetho wokunyanzelisa abaphambukeli. Ngo-2023, iTexas idlulise iSB 4, igunyazisa amapolisa karhulumente ukuba abambe abaphambukeli abangaxelwanga, nto leyo ebangela ukuba kubekho idabi elitsha elingomthetho norhulumente.

Ezi mfazwe zigxininisa inyaniso esisiseko: Ngelixesha amazwe encedisa ekunyanzelweni koluntu lwaselurhulumenteni, akanakumisela eyawo inkqubo yokufuduka. Igunya likarhulumente elipheleleyo kulo mmandla yenye yeendawo ezimbalwa apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo isoloko ikhusela yaye ingqongqo ulawulo lwamarhulumente.

4. Utshintsho lwezempilo: UMthetho we-Affordive Care kunye noMgaqo-nkqubo

Idabi Lolwando Olunzima

Xa umthetho we-Affordble Care Act (ACA) watyikitywa kumthetho ngo-2010, wawuquka ilungiselelo elifuna ukuba amazwe andise iinkqubo zawo ze-Medicaid ukugquma bonke abantu abadala ngengeniso ukuya ku- 138% yomgangatho wobuhlwempu karhulumente. Urhulumente wesizwe uzakuhlawula ikhulu elinamashumi amabini anesithandathu eendleko, ngokuthe ngcembe ancitshiswe ngumthetho, ephikisa ukuba ulwandiso lwamazwe anyanzelekileyo ukuba athathe inxaxheba kwinkqubo entsha echasene nomnqweno wawo.

IFomatilean Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (2012), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba kwelokuba xa ingumthetho womntu ngamnye wawungumGaqo-siseko (njengerhafu), ulwandiso lweMedicaid lwalungekho. INkundla yathi ngokuyikhupha yonke imali yeMedicaid ekhoyo kumazwe akwala ukwandisa yayingekho semthethweni.

Umsantsa ogqumayo noguquguquko lukaRhulumente

Ngonyaka wama-2024, amazwana alishumi akakandiswanga, kuquka iTexas, iFlorida, kunye neMississippi. Oku kuye kwadala "isithuba sokufihla" kwizigidi zabantu abadala abafumana imali ephantsi abafumana imali eninzi kakhulu ngenxa yesithethe se-Medicaid kodwa abambalwa kakhulu ukuba bafanelekele i-inshorensi encinane yobuqu. Urhulumente wengingqi uzame ukunyusa ulwando kwiinkqubo ezichaseneyo, ezifana nezikhombisi kunye nokwandisa isantya esilinganayo kwiinkonzo ezithile, kodwa ukwala la mazwe kugxininisa imida yegunya likarhulumente kwimiqathango yempilo.

Imfazwe yeACA ikwabonisa "urhulumente worhulumente onamandla" onamandla: urhulumente worhulumente wasebenzisa isixhaso senkxaso-mali ekhoyo ukutyhalela urhulumente kwiinjongo zomgaqo-nkqubo, kodwa iNkundla ePhakamileyo yahlehlisa, igcina ukuzimela kukarhulumente. Oku kusesinye sezigqibo ezibalulekileyo zoburhulumente benkulungwane yama-21.

5. Imithetho yokusingqongileyo: Igunya elikhethekileyo leKhalifoniya neMigangatho yeSizwe

Inqanawa yeKhalifoniya neVehicle Egistrations

Inkqubo yokusingqongileyo yenye ibala apho urhulumente kunye negunya likarhulumente lingqubana rhoqo. ICalifornia Act ivumela ukuba iKhalifoniya ifune umxhasi kwi-Evironmental Protection Agency (EPA) yokumisela eyayo, imilinganiselo yokukhupha igesi engqongqo. Amanye amazwe angakhetha ukuthatha imigangatho karhulumente okanye yeKhalifoniya. Oku kuye kwanika impembelelo ekhuthazweni lokuguqula inkqubo ye-oyilemzimfono yesizwe.

Ngexesha lolawulo lwe-Obama, eKhalifoniya ne-EPA basebenza benyusa imigangatho yezorhwebo. Noko ke, i-Trump Administration yarhoxa umenzi wesibhaka-bhaka saseKhalifoniya yaza yaqengqeleka emva kwemigangatho yesizwe, nto leyo eyakhokelela kwingquzulwano enkulu. IKhalifoniya yamangalelwa, kunye neqela labenzi beenqwelo-mafutha lavuma kwimiqathango yokuzithandela eyadlula kwimfuno zikarhulumente. I-Biden Administration yabuyisela kwakhona imilinganiselo yeKhalifoniya yaza yaza yaphinda yabuyela kwimo engqongqo.

Ilinge likarhulumente karhulumente lokususa iKhalifoniya kwisenzo sayo sokuzichasa yaba lucelomngeni olungqalileyo kwigunya elide lorhulumente phantsi koMthetho woMthombo omhlophe womoya. Iinkundla ekugqibeleni zaxhasa iKhalifoniya, ziqinisekisa ukuba iEPA ayinakumgxotha ngokungeyomfuneko umenzi wetyala onikwe ngokusemthethweni.

Isicwangciso Samandla Acocekileyo Nomanyano Lomanyano

ICeac Power Plan (2015), ejolise ekunciphiseni ukukhutshwa kwekharbon kwizityalo zamandla, yaxhomekeke kakhulu kumazwe ukuzalisekisa umthetho olandelwa ngumntu ngamnye. Isicwangciso sacelwwa ngumazwe amaninzi, ekhokelwa nguNtshona Virginia, ngezizathu zokuba yayadlula igunya le-EPA phantsi koMthetho woMoya oGcweleyo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ayizange ilawule ngemisebenzi, kuba i-Trump Administration yathatha indawo yeplani nge-Afford Econner Evect. Noko ke, imeko West Virginia v. [PA:] 2022]) yaphinda yawuphendula lo mba, kwaye iNkuNkundla yalinganisela amandla e-EPA ukusetyenziswa "kuguquka" ukusetyenziswa kwe-avelvert" ukulawulwa, ukukhomba-omba.

Ezi mfazwe zibangelwa yimekobume zityhila ukungqubana okuntsonkothileyo phakathi kwenkululeko karhulumente negunya likarhulumente: amanye amazwe afuna ukhuseleko olunamandla kunorhulumente worhulumente worhulumente, amanye afuna olubuthathaka, yaye imida yomGaqo-siseko yamandla omgangatho ngamnye isoloko ivavanywa.

6. Ulawulo lwemipu: Amalungelo esibini oHlaziyo noNkxaso lweMveli

Imithetho engqongqo kaRhulumente ephikisanayo. Imigangatho yomanyano

Ulawulo lwemipu ngummandla apho urhulumente wesizwe ebeka umgangatho, hayi isilingi. IsiHlaliso sesibini, njengoko sichazwe ku- Divertical of Columbia v. Helter (2008) kunye MDonald v. Isixeko saseChicago[[[FLT]]] (2010), sikhusela umntu ngamnye ilungelo lokugcina nokuphatha izixhobo. Kodwa ke, amaziko akhululekile ukwenza imimiselo engqongqo, logama nje engangqubanisi kwisiqu sasekunene.

Amazwe anjengeKhalifoniya, New York, kunye neMassachusetts amisele eminye yeyona mithetho yemipu eqinileyo ephakathi kwesizwe, kuquka ukuvalwa komsebenzi wezixhobo zokuhlasela, amaphephancwadi aphezulu ahamba ngesantya esiphezulu, kunye neemfuno ezingqongqo. Urhulumente wesizwe, phantsi koMthetho wokuLawula weGun ka-1968 kunye noMgaqo-nkqubo weBrady, umisela ukunyanzela kunye neemfuno zesiseko soburhulumente ukukhangela imfuno. Kodwa imithetho karhulumente isenokuqhubeka. Kuvuka ukuxa imithetho yamazwe icelw'ucelw'ucelo lwamalungelo emfazwe aphikisanayo noMthetho wesiCubini, okanye xa urhulumente ezama ukubeka imigaqo efana neyo yonke imvelaphi, ethetha ukuba ixhathisa.

Isigqibo sonya neNtloko yeRhulumente

Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi yeNew York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen [2022] yayisusa ngokuphawulekayo indawo. INkundla yawisa phantsi "isizathu esifanelekileyo" sokuthwala imvume, ibambe ukuba nawuphi na umthetho wemipu kufuneka ulungelelene nesithethe sembali selizwe somthetho wemipu. Esi sigqibo sibangele igatya lemithetho enzima yemipu ngaphaya kwelizwe, kuquka ukuvalwa kwezixhobo zokuhlasela kwenqanawa zemfazwe nemithetho emitsha yokuphatha kwiindawo ezi-"ezingathi zinyanzelekileyo"."."Urhulumente worhulumente uxhasa, ukucaciswa okubanzi kwemithetho yeSibi sokuHlamkelo, kodwa akazamanga kulandela imithetho yesizwe ehambayo.

Ungquzulwano lolawulo lwemipu phantsi kolawulo lorhulumente luhlukile ngenxa yokuba uMgaqo-siseko wesibini ubeka imida kurhulumente worhulumente norhulumente, kodwa uvumela ukuba kuchazwe indlela yokusebenzisa ubuchule kwindlela abalawula ngayo phakathi kwemida. Isiphumo sisenzo esidityanisiweyo semithetho eyahluka-hlukeneyo ngokwemeko ngokwesizwe, idala ukhuphiswano oluqhubekayo olungokwasemthethweni.

7. Imfundo neSikhundla sedabi saNgoku: Ingcamango Yogqatso Olubalulekileyo Nenkqubo

Imiqathango yomgangatho karhulumente ekufundiseni

Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, imfundo iye yavela njengebala eliphambili lemfazwe yephondo. Ngoxa imfundo ngokwesithethe ingurhulumente kunye nomthetho wasekuhlaleni, urhulumente uphembelela inkqubo yenkxaso-mali, ukunyanzeliswa kwamalungelo abantu, kunye nemithetho enjenge-All Students Receeds Act (ESA).

Ukususela ngowama-2021, ubuncinane kumazwe ali-18 aye amisela imithetho ethintela indlela othisha abanokuthetha ngayo ngesizwe, ubufanasini, kunye nembali yaseMerika. Le mithetho isoloko ijolise kwiingcamango ezinxulumene ne-Critical Race Theory (CRT), nangona iCRT ngokwayo inqabile ukufundiswa kwizikolo ze K-12. Ngokuphendula, iSebe lemfundo lezemfundo likhuphe ukhokelo oluchaza ukuba imiqathango enjalo isenokungaphulani amalungelo abafundi ukuba badala imekobume enobutshaba okanye abacalucalucalucalulo nxamnye nabafundi beentlanga ezithile. Ezinye izikolo ziye zarhoxabela ukuba ukhokelo lukarhulumente alunyanzeli ngokomthetho.

Ngoxa kungekho mthetho uphambili karhulumente oye wamiselwa ukuba uphelise umgaqo - siseko wokufundisa, le ngxabano ibalaselisa ungquzulwano olukhulayo phakathi kolawulo lukarhulumente kwimfundo nolongamelo lwamalungelo abantu.

Isiphelo: Umsebenzi Ongapheliswanga WezaMazwe AseMerika

Le mizekelo yehlabathi yokwenene ibonisa ukuba uxinezeleko phakathi korhulumente norhulumente worhulumente asiyompazamo kwinkqubo, kwaye yinkqubo ngokwayo. I-United States yenzelwe ukugcina ulawulo loburhulumente ngexesha idala urhulumente wesizwe onamandla okwaziyo ukwenza okulungileyo. Ulungelelwano lusoloko luvavanywa yimithetho emitsha, ubugcisa obutsha, kunye nentsebenziswano entsha yezopolitiko.

Njengokuba ezi mfazwe ziqhubeka ziguquka, kuvela iindlela eziliqela: Urhulumente wengingqi udla ngokuphumelela xa esebenza kumagunya akhe adwelisiweyo (ukufuduka, urhwebo lwamazwe ahlukeneyo, ukunyanzeliswa kwamalungelo abantu). Amazwe asoloko ephumelela xa exhathisa ukunyanzelwa ngurhulumente okungaguqula iimbopheleleko zawo zesithethe (ulwando lweziko lemfundo ethile). Kwaye kwezinye iindawo, njengokwenziwa komjumba kunye nolawulo lwemipu, ingxabano ayipheli, kungekho sigqibo sicacileyo somgaqo-siseko.

Ukuqonda ezi ntshukumo zibalulekileyo kuye nabani na ofuna ukujikajika indlela enzima yokulawula kweMelika. Le mizekelo ichazweyo ayiyombali ekudala, kwaye iyaqhubeka ixambulisana eya kuchaphazela ikamva lohlanga.

Kufundo olubhekele phaya ngemithetho-siseko kunye nezi ngxabano zikhethekileyo, bona i i-Consitution Anutive , ityala leNkundla leefayile, kunye nocalulo olusuka kwi Iqumrhu Lesizwe nelenubeko yobulali.