Inkqubo elindelekileyo ngumgaqo wesigqeba senkqubo yomthetho waseMerika, eqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu uza kuhluthwa ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwemigaqo esesikweni nesemthethweni. Eli lungelo lisisiseko liququzelelwe kuko kokubili ukuLandliswa koMgaqo-siseko wesihlanu noweshumi elinesine eUnited States, edala ikhusi elibini lokuchasene nesenzo sobugqwesiswano borhulumente. ISindululo sesihlanu sisebenza inkqubo efunekayo kurhulumente wesizwe, ngoxa uHlaziselo lweGawula lweshumi elinesine lunwele lunweba ukhuseleko lwezenzo ezithathiweyo zithatyathwe ngurhulumente kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni. Esona siseko salo, siqinisekisa ukuba umatshini bokusesikweni basebenze ngokucace, ukungakhethi, nokuhlonela isidima. Asiyo ingcamango epheleleyo kodwa asiyo intelekelelo epheleleyo yemithetho eguqukayo kunye nenkcazelo yezomthetho.

Ukuguquka Kwembali Kwenkqubo

Imvelaphi yobuchule neyomthetho yenkqubo efunekayo ibuya ibuya umva kwiinkulungwane, isuka kakhulu kwizithethe zomthetho wamaNgesi. Eyona ngxelo iphambili yaphambili yiMagna Carta ka-1215, evakaliswe kwiSahluko 39 ukuba akukho mntu okhululekileyo onokuthi avalelwe entolongweni, agxothwe, okanye agxothwe "ngaphandle komgwebo osemthethweni woontanga bakhe okanye umthetho welizwe." Eli binzana lithi — "umthetho welizwe" — ngukhokhokhokhokho wale yenkqubo elindelekileyo. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, iinkundla zezomntlalo nepalamente zazihlazisela ezi zinto, ngokubalaseleyo ngeHabeas Corpus Act 1679, ezathi zaqinisa ilungelo lomntu ngamnye ukucela umngeni ongekho mthethweni enkundleni.

Xa amathanga aseMerika avakalisa uzimele, ayephethe ezi siqinisekiso somthetho oqhelekileyo kunye nawo. Umgaqo-siseko wangaphambili wawusoloko uquka iziqinisekiso eziqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu unokuhluthwa ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle komthetho welizwe. UHlelo-Mfushaniso lwesihlanu, lwagunyaziswa ngo1791 njengenxalenye yeBhili yamaLungelo, lwanika imeko ecacileyo yomgaqo-siseko kwinkqubo efunekayo kumgangatho worhulumente. Noko ke, oko bekungade kube kukubekwa phantsi koMgqibo we 1450th Demente ngo1868, emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya, inkqubo efanelekileyo yaba yi-ejongo kurhulumente. Icandelo 1 lama-1491 lamaGalisa adumileyo lakwalela ukukhasa "umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo yomthetho, i-omthetho olawulayo.""

Kumashumi eminyaka alandelayo, ngokuthe ngcembe iNkundla ePhakamileyo "ifake" inkoliso yamaLungelo achasene namaRhulumente ngokuchasene noMazwe ngeSitiko soMsebenzi kaClaus weSinyuselo se-14. Le nkqubo, eyaziwa ngokuba kukutyunjwa okukhethiweyo, iqinisekise ukuba oorhulumente kufuneka bawahlonele amalungelo asisiseko afanayo norhulumente wesizwe, kuquka inkululeko yokuthetha, ilungelo lokuphatha izixhobo, kunye nokukhusela ekuphangweni nokuxhuzula okungekho ngqiqweni.

Iintsika Ezimbini: Inkqubo Eqhelekileyo nengaphantsi

Uhlalutyo olufanelekileyo lwenkqubo yanamhlanje lwahlula le ngcamango ibe ziindidi ezimbini ezahlukileyo kodwa ezinxulumeneyo: inkqubo efunekayo kunye nenkqubo encinci efunekayo. Ukuqonda umahluko kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela iinkundla ezisebenzisa ngayo ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo kwiimeko ezahlukeneyo.

Inkqubo eQhelekileyo

Inkqubo efunekayo yenkqubo yenkqubo ibhekisele kwi neenkqubo urhulumente kufuneka alandelwe phambi kokuba ahlube umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla. Ifuna ukuba abantu bafumane isaziso esaneleyo sesenzo esithathwa ngokuchasene nabo, ithuba elinentsingiselo lokuviwa, kunye nesigqibo senkundla engakhethi buso. Iimfuno ezikhethekileyo ziyahluka kuxhomekeka kumongo, kodwa ingqiqo engundoqo kukuba kufuneke ukuba kuhambelene nobulungisa phambi kokuba intlukwano ivele.

Isiseko esingundoqo senkqubo yeprocedturac iquka:

  • [[FLT: 0] Inqaku lolwamkelo: Abantu ngabanye kufuneka baxelelwe ngesenzo esicetywayo kunye nezizathu apho sisekelwe khona. Esi saziso kufuneka sibelwe ngokufanelekileyo ukufikelela kwiqela elichaphazelekayo, elinikwe iimeko.
  • ukuva: Phambi kokuhluthwa kobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, abantu ngabanye banelungelo lohlobo oluthile lokuva. Oku kusenokuba lityala elipheleleyo namangqina novavanyo lokunqamleza, okanye ukuva okungacwangciswanga, kuxhomekeke kwindlela inzala echaphazelekayo.
  • [[UMTL:0] Umenzi wesigqibo ongakhethi cala: Igosa okanye iqumrhu eligqiba ukuba le meko mayingabi namkhethe kwaye ingabi namdla kwimilo yomdla. Lo mgaqo sisiseko samalungelo kumgwebi ongathathi cala okanye umphathi ovayo.
  • Ekunene kwiSibonelelo esikhoyo: Umntu ochaphazelekayo makavunyelwe anikele ubungqina neempikiswano ezikhuselayo, kwaye ajongene nobungqina obungentle.
  • [[NTL:0] Ilungelo kwisiluleko: Kwiimeko ezininzi — ingakumbi kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho — abantu ngabanye banelungelo lokumelwa ligqwetha. Kwezinye iimeko zasekuhlaleni kunye nezolawulo, eli lungelo lingalinganiselwa kodwa liqwalaselwa ngokukhulayo njengeyimfuneko kwinkqubo elungileyo.

Inkundla ePhakamileyo yaseka isakhiwo esithambileyo sokumisa inkqubo ekhoyo kumzekelo ka 1976 Mathews v. Phantsi kolu vavanyo. Inkundla zilinganisa oothunywashe abathathu: inzala yabucala echaphazelekayo yisenzo sikarhulumente, umngcipheko wokunqandwa okuphosakeleyo phantsi kwenkqubo ezikhoyo kunye nexabiso elilindelekileyo lemiqathango eyongezelelweyo yemiqathango, nomdla karhulumente kwimpumelelo yolawulo kunye noqoqosho. Le ndlela ilungelelanisa ivumela inkqubo efanelekileyo yokulungisa iproccodec ilungelelanisa iimeko ezithile.

Inkqubo elindelekileyo

Inkqubo efunekayo ephambili yempikiswano neyandileyo. Ikhusela amalungelo athile asisiseko ekungeneleni korhulumente ngaphandle kwemigaqo esetyenzisiweyo, nokuba isaziso esipheleleyo kunye nokuva okusesikweni kunikezelwe. Ngamanye amazwi, amanye amalungelo ayimfuneko kwinkululeko nesigwebo kangangokuba urhulumente akanakuphazamisana nawo konke, ngaphandle kokuba anobulungisa obunamandla.

Imvelaphi yenkqubo elindelekileyo ekwinkulungwane ye-20 ikwingcamango yokuba i-Act Process Claus ayikhuseli nje inkqubo kodwa ikwayiyo ingaphantsi kwenkululeko . Ngexesha lokuphela kwenkulungwane ye-19 kunye neye-20, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yasebenzisa inkqubo esezantsi efunekayo ukubetha imimiselo yezoqoqosho, efana nemithetho ephezulu yeyure kunye nemithetho encinane ehlawulwayo, ngokweemeko ezifana iLachner v. New York [195] [195]. Le nkathi, eyaziwa njengenkqubo [FLCT:4], eyaziwa kakhulu ngokwexesha lokusetyenziswa kwemimiselo yezoqoqo lezoqoqosho. [FLT], yagxekwa kakhulu ngenxa yeembono zezorhwebo.

Ngoko, iNkundla yaqhubeka isebenzisa inkqubo encinci efunekayo ukukhusela amalungelo angengooqoqosho olusisiseko. Ukususela phakathi kwinkulungwane yama-20, le mfundiso ibiyeyona iphambili kumatyala amalunga:

  • Ilungelo lokutshata: Kwi Lovang v. Virginia (1967), iNkundla yaphelisa ukuvalwa komtshato wezizwe ngezizwe; Obergefell v. Hodges, ilungelo lokutshata lanyuselwa kwizibini ezifanayo.
  • Ilungelo lokukhulisa abantwana: Abazali banelungelo elisisiseko lokwalathisa uqeqesho nemfundo yabantwana babo, eyaziwa kwi Pierce v. Society of Oodade [1925] kunye [FLT]] ne[FLT]Wiscon v. Yoder[12]
  • Ilungelo lokusebenzisa ukhuseleko kunye nenkululeko yomzimba: [FLT] [FULT]]Griswold v.Connecticut[ [65]] [65] yamkela ilungelo lezibini ezitshatileyo lokusebenzisa uthintelo; Roe v. [[FLT:][FLT] [12] [107]]] [7777]]) yandisa ukuqiqaqa komfazi ilungelo lokukhetha ukuqhomfa — nangona i-Dobts v. Jackson'Ast [[FLT:] Iquok'.[FLT][FL:9]
  • [[UMTL: 0] Inkundla ezizimeleyo nezokuziphatha okusondeleleneyo: Inkundla kwi Lawrence v. Texas [2003] [ii-2003] yabetha imithetho yorhulumente yesodoma njengeyaphula inkqubo efunekayo efunekayo, iqinisekisa ilungelo lokubandakanyeka kwihambo yesondo yangasese, enxulumeneyo.

Inkqubo esisiseko esisiseko iseyenye yezona mfundiso zidityanisiweyo ngokukhawulezileyo kumthetho womGaqo-siseko. Abahlalutyi bathi icela abagwebi ukuba bafunde izikhethelo zabo zomgaqo-siseko kumGaqo-siseko, ngoxa abaxhasi besithi kubalulekile ukukhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye kwiinkokeli.

Inkqubela kwi PHP

Imigaqo yenkqubo yeprocedtura neyokungangeni mandla isebenza phantse kuyo yonke imimandla yomthetho apho urhulumente asebenza khona ukuchaphazela izilangazelelo zomntu. Nantsi indlela ezikhuseli ezisebenza ngayo kwimimandla engundoqo.

Umthetho Wakwaphula Umthetho

Amalungelo afanelekileyo enkqubo athe avuleka kakhulu kumo wolwaphulo-mthetho kuba izibonda ziphezulu: inkululeko yomntu isengozini ngqo. UmGaqo-siseko ufuna ukuba urhulumente abonise zonke izinto zetyala ngaphandle kokuthandabuza okufanelekileyo, ukuba abamangalelwa banelungelo lokuvavanywa ngokukhawuleza nanguwonke wonke ngabagwebi abangakhethiyo, kwaye banelungelo lokufumana uncedo lwecebo. Ityala lendalo [[FLT:] [0] Gedeon v. [1963])) ibambe ukuba abamangalelwa bamele bachaze ukuba abamangalelwa abamele ukunikezela igqwetha abagwebi abajongenelo abajongeneyo phambi kwamalungelo abo bagwetyelwayo, kwaye kamva landiswe nakweyiphi nayiphi na imeko apho kunokwenzeka. [FLD:]

Ukongezelela, inkqubo efanelekileyo ilawula inkqubo yokucetyiswa, egqiba ityala elininzi lolwaphulo-mthetho. INkundla iye yathi isibongozo esinetyala kufuneka singene ngokuzithandela nangobulumko, nokuba abamangalelwa kufuneka bayazi imiphumo engqalileyo yesicelo sabo. Umgaqo wokusesikweni osisiseko ukwalela ukusetyenziswa kobungqina obuthile obufunyenweyo ngenxa yokwaphula inkqubo efanelekileyo, njengokuvuma izono okunyanzelwa ngamandla omzimba okanye ngengcinezelo yengqondo.

Umthetho Wamakhaya

Kwinkqubo yoluntu, kufuneka ukuba abantu bafumane isaziso kunye nethuba lokuviwa ngaphambi kokuba urhulumente asuse impahla okanye inzala yenkululeko ebalulekileyo. Oku kusebenza ngokuphandle: phambi kokuphelisa iinzuzo zentlalo-ntle, ukukhupha i-partent kwindlu kawonke-wonke, okanye ukususa imvume yokuqhuba imoto, isaziso kunye nohlobo oluthile lokuva kufuneka lunikwe. Noko ke, ixesha kunye nendalo yokuva kusenokuhluka. Kwezinye iimeko, ukuva kwangaphambili kuyimfuneko; kwezinye, ukuva okufunekayo, ukuva kwepost-sprive ngezixhobo ezaneleyo. [[FLT: 0] iMaws. Eldridge. v ukulinganisa uvavanyo oluchanekileyo kumgangatho wezokhuseleko lwezentlalo, apho iNkulungisa iNkupho ebonakala ikho.

Enye indawo ebalulekileyo kukuzibophelela kwabantu abanesifo sengqondo. INkundla ePhakamileyo ikholelwa ukuba inkqubela efunekayo ifuna ubungqina obucacileyo nobuyisekayo bobungozi okanye ukukhubazeka okungcwaba phambi kokuba umntu avalelwe ngokungekho mthethweni. Lo mgangatho, uthatyathwe kwi- Addington v. Texas [19979]), ibonisa umdla wenkululeko exhotyiswe kwisibonda, iqinisekisa ukuba iimpazamo azinakwenzekanga ngokuphosakeleyo ukuhlupha umntu inkululeko yakhe.

Umthetho Olawulayo

Amaziko karhulumente asebenzisa igunya elikhulu phezu kwabantu ngabanye ngezenzo ezilawulwayo, ngokumisela izigqibo, kunye nezibonelelo eziyingenelo. Inkqubo efunekayo yokuba aba bameli bamkele iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo — ngokuqhelekileyo kuquka isaziso, ithuba lokunikela ubungqina, kunye nesigqibo esicacisiweyo singummeli ongakhethiyo. I-Adreampera Procedure Act (APA) idibanisa ezininzi zezi zimfuno zesebe lesizwe, kodwa inkqubo emiselwe ngumgaqo-siseko ibeka umgangatho ongenakuhamba ngaphantsi. Umzekelo, ekupheliseni ukufuduka, abantu ngabanye banelungelo lokuva phambi komgwebi ovela kwamanye amazwe, ilungelo lokunikwa isiluleko (ngakuyo kwindleko yabo), kwaye ithuba lokubonisa ubungqina obubangela ukuhlangulwa okanye ukuhlangulwa. [FLD] VGULD [2004]

Imfundo

Abafundi kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke banemfuno yempahla ethile kwimfundo yabo nakwizilangazelelo zenkululeko. Ngenxa yoko, uMphengululo weSicwangciso seshumi elinesine we-Awrence's Access Claus uyasebenza kwizenzo zesikolo zoqeqesho ezikhokelela ekugxothweni okanye ekugxothweni. Gos v. I-Lopez[FLT:] [1997], iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele ekubeni umfundi ojongene nentsuku ezilishumi makanikwe isaziso okanye abhaliwe ngezityholo zetyala kunye nethuba lokudlulisela icala lakhe, ngokubalulekileyo inkqubela phambili yenkqubo efunekayo yokuva. Kubandakanye ukugxothwa okanye izigqizo zemfundo ezikhethekileyo, kufuneka imigaqo ebanzi. Iinkqubo ezibanzi zemfundo (IA) zinika ukhuseleko olubanzi lwemfundo olubanzi — kuquka nenkqubo efanelekileyo yokuvalwa kwemfundo yabafundi okanye iprocracculture transty — iproctionsssssssion of trationssss to trationtionssss of the tracrity.

Uphawu lwetyala elikwiNkundla ePhakamileyo eYehlisa Inkqubo Elindelekileyo

Amatyala aliqela eNkundla ePhakamileyo ayilolonga ngokusisiseko intsingiselo kunye nobungakanani benkqubo efunekayo. Ngezantsi yimizekelo engundoqo, kunye noqhagamshelwano kwimithombo engundoqo:

  • Gideon v. Wainwright [1963]: imisele ilungelo lokucebisa kwiityala zolwaphulo-mthetho zikarhulumente zolwaphulo-mthetho olunetyala, ibandakanya uMmiselo weSithandathu wokuLandlwa ngeKhompyutha ka-Dixo.
  • [[NTLT:0] Miranda v. Arizona [196]: Amapolisa afunekayo ukucebisa abakrokrele ngelungelo lawo lokuhlala buthule nokuba negqwetha elikhoyo ngexesha lokuncinwa kwegunya, ukukhusela ilungelo lokuLandliswa kweMpanziswano wesihlanu nxamnye nomahluko wendlela efunekayo.
  • MATHEws v. Elditridge [6]: yaseka uvavanyo lwezinga elifanelekileyo lokulinganisela ukugqiba ukuba yiyiphi inkqubo efunekayo efunekayo kwimicimbi yolawulo — umgangatho usasetyenziswa ziinkundla namhlanje.
  • [[NTLT:0] ROE v. [FLT][3] [77]]): Yamkela ilungelo lomfazi lokukhetha ukuqhomfa njengenxalenye yelungelo kwinkqubo efunekayo kwi-equare phantsi kwe-atlantis , (egunyazwe ngokwenxenye yi [FLT]]] [FLT]]] Dobbs v. Jackson’s Health Organization of Amen [2022], eyayibambe ukuba ukuqhomfa akuyiyo engundoqo).
  • obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Ijijele ukuba uLawulo lweshumi elinesine lufuna irejista yokwamkelwa kwemali nokuqaphela imitshato efanayo, ephumle kwinkqubo efanelekileyo nakumaziko alinganayo.

Iimbambano Nempikiswano

Inkqubela iyaqhubeka isesazuluni semiba esemthethweni nengokwentlalo. Enye ingxubusho ebalulekileyo yale mihla ixhomekeka kukhuselo olufanelekileyo , imfundiso ekhusela amagosa karhulumente kwityala lasekuhlaleni ngaphandle kokuba ahlule amalungelo amiselweyo okanye asemthethweni. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi ukukhusela ukuthintelwa okufanelekileyo kulula ngokwenza kube nzima ukufumana ukhuthuzo lomthetho-siseko, ngokukodwa kwiimeko ezichasene namagosa. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ibonise ukukulungela ukucombulula imfundiso ngaphandle kokuba icace ngokomthetho okanye umGaqo-siseko. Abachazi baphikisa ngokuthi ukunciphisana okufanelekileyo kuyenza kube nzima ukuyifumana iprojeko yolwaphulo-mthetho, ngokukodwa kwiimeko ezichasene namapolisa.

Inkqubo elindelekileyo kwixesha lamanani iphakamisa imibuzo emitsha malunga nesaziso kunye nokuva kwixesha lokwenza kwemithetho-mithetho. Umzekelo, iinkqubo ezizenzekelayo ezikhanyela iinzuzo, ukuqhatha kweflegi, okanye ii-payile zebheyile zinokusebenza ngaphandle kwentsingiselo ecacileyo okanye amathuba abalulekileyo abantu abachaphazelekayo ukukhuphisana nesiphumo. Iinkundla ziyangqubana nokuba iinkqubo ezinjalo zihlangabezana na nemilinganiselo efanelekileyo yenkqubo esisiseko, ingakumbi xa i-data engaphantsi okanye imithetho-algorithi i-proprietary okanye i-algority ithenjiwe.

Isifo esingubhubhani se-COVID-19 esavavanywa ngendlela engazange ibonwe. Iindawo zokufihla intloko, imiyalelo yempilo kawonke-wonke, kunye nenkundla ekude zonke iingxoxo zaphakamisa imibuzo ngolungelelwano phakathi kobulungisa obuphakathi kweprojekthi nemfuneko yokuthabatha inyathelo elikhawulezayo likarhulumente. INkundla ePhakamileyo kwiinkqubo eziliqela zongxamiseko yabonisa ukuba iintambo zokukhupha impahla azinakuwakhupha amalungelo abemi bokufikelela kwimpahla yabo, ikhankanya inkcaza imicimbi efunekayo.

Mhlawumbi eyona ndawo iqhushumbisayo lixesha elizayo lenkqubo engundoqo emva amaDobs. Ngokubuyisela umbuzo wokuqhomfa kumazwe, iNkundla ibonise ukuba awekho onke amalungelo agqalwa njengabalulekileyo ngaphambili anokuhlala ekhuselwe. Ezinye izigwebo ziye zabiza ukuqwalasela kwakhona ezinye imizekelo esezantsi, kuquka ezo zikhusela ilungelo lokutshata nokusebenzisa ibhambham. Le minyaka ezayo izakubona ukuba ukukhutshwa okubalulekileyo kwamalungelo ahlala ejongelwe phantsi kwe "intelekelelo kunye nesithethe" zinokuhlala zikhuselekile ku [FLT] [FL: FF] [FFF] [5] [5] Le nkqubo yomthetho womthetho ophezulu wemithetho eMelikan. [iiiinjini engundoqo]

Isiphelo

Inkqubo elindelekileyo yomthetho waseMerika ihlala ililitye lomthetho, ikhusela abantu kwisenzo sombuso esizikhetheleyo kwaye iqinisekisa ukuba igunya likarhulumente lisetyenziswa kakuhle. Nokuba kusetyenziswa ukhuseleko olusemthethweni lwesaziso kunye nokuva okanye ukhuseleko oluphantsi lwenkululeko esisiseko, i-Seed Process yeNkqutyana ka-Claus yeNkqutyana yeNkangeleko yesihlanu neyeshumi elinesine idlala indima ebalulekileyo ekulondolozeni umthetho. Le ngcamango iye yangqinelana ngokuphawulekayo, isuka kwimithetho-maNgesi yamaxesha aphakathi ukuya kucelomngeni lobuchule bokwenziwa kolwazi kunye neengxaki zempilo yomhlaba wonke. Kubafundisi, abafundi, iingcali zezomthetho, kunye nabemi ngokufanayo, inkqubo efunekayo efunekayo — kungekhona ukuxabisa iziqinisekiso zomGaqonga, kodwa ukuzikhusela.