Ukwazisa: UMthetho Njengekrele Elineentambo Ezimbini

Ulwalamano oluphakathi kweenkqubo zomthetho namalungelo abantu lusekelwe kwaye luzaliswe luxinezeleko. Umthetho unokuba sisixhobo senkululeko / ukuphelisa ukwahlulwa, ukwandisa ukwandiswa kwenkululeko yabantu ngabanye. Kodwa kwimbali yaseMerika, izakhiwo ezisemthethweni zikwasetyenziswa ukubophelela ingcinezelo, ukuxhasa ubukhoboka, ukunyanzelisa, ukunyanzelisa ukuthotyelwa kwesidima somntu esisisiseko kuzo zonke iindidi zabantu. Ukuqonda oku kuyimfuneko nabani na ofuna ukuqhubekisa imicimbi yobulungisa. Iinkqubo zomthetho azisebenzi kwibala lomthetho; zibonakalisa isimo sentlalo, izilangazelelo zezoqoqosho, kunye nezakhiwo zezobupolitika. Xa ezo zakhiwo zicekwaliwa, umthetho unokuba libalazwe lilo lwemfazwe apho inkqubela iinguquko enkulu. Eli nqaku lihlola iziphumo zembali, imiqobo yemithetho ephambili, imiqobo eqhubekayo, nemiqatha yemithetho yeNkulwano yezo ngokomthetho, kunye nemithetho esetyenziswa ngokusesikweni.

Isiseko Somthetho Wamalungelo Abantu Embali

UMgaqo-siseko neSibheno saMalungelo

UMgaqo-siseko weUnited States, owagunyaziswa ngo-1788, waseka isiseko somthetho wesizwe kodwa walalaniswa ngokunzulu nokusekwa kobukhoboka. IBhill yamaLungelo[ (iii-antementement zokuqala zokuqala ezilishumi) zaqinisekisa inkxaso ekhethekileyo efana nenkululeko yokuthetha, unqulo, kunye nendibano, kunye nokukhuselwa ekukhuseleni ukuphengululwa nokuxhuzula okungekho ngqiqweni. Noko ke, la malungelo ayefumaneka ekuqaleni kuphela kubamhlophe, amadoda azimele impahla. I-Endidid yabala abantu abathathu ngokomntu ngenjongo yokumela, kwaye abantu babekhutshwe kakhulu ekuhlaleni.

[[NTL:0] IsiHlaliso seNkqutyana yeMimiselo yeNtshona Koloni, eyaqinisekiswa ngowe-1868, yayingumzuzu oshenxiswayo. Ukukhusela Kwaso u-Claus elinganayo kwathi shwaka ngokucacileyo ukuba akukho rhulumente “onokukhusela nabani na onegunya lakhe lokulawula ukhuseleko olulinganayo lwemithetho.” Le nguqu yaba yindawo esemthethweni phantse onke amalungelo asekuhlaleni alandelayo, ukususela ekukhutshweni kwemfundo emtshatweni. Kodwa isithembiso se 144th Amendumiso sathi yakhawuleza sathotywa yinkundla ephakamileyo kwiimeko ezifana .[FLT] V.[FLT]]] [FLT]]

Ukwakhiwa kwakhona nokunyuka kukaJim Crow

Emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya, inkathi yokuphinda ivuselelwe (1865-1817) yabona ukudlula koMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1866 kunye nokudalwa kwe-Freedmen’s Bureau, eyayijolise ekukhuseleni amalungelo abantu ababefudula bengamakhoboka. Kodwa ukurhoxa kwamajoni orhulumente kuMzantsi wakhokelela kwimithetho ekhawulezayo yeBlack Codens kwaye kamva uJim Crow wabe ngumthetho wobuhlanga kunye nolawulo olungookrwadayo oluhlala phantse nenkulungwane. Ugwayibhishophu, iirhafu, iimviwo-zincwadi, iimvavanyo zokufunda nokubhala, kwaxhaswa yinkundla yezomthetho, kwaye kwiimeko ezininzi, yinkundla ephakamileyo ye-U.

Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ezifana ne Plessy v. Ferguson kunye uWilliams v. Mississippi (1898) wanika umgaqo-mGaqo-siseko wolu qheliselo lobuhlanga. Kwakungade kube phakathi kwenkulungwane ye-20 apho ukuzala kolwandle okusemthethweni kwaqalisa ukujika, kuqhutywa kukuqhutywa ngokuqhutywa ngokuqhutywa kwemithetho yamalungelo abantu abaqhelekileyo ababeka ubomi babo esichengeni ekuvavaneni nemithetho engekho bulungisa.

Uphawu Lokoyisa Okusemthethweni Okwaguqula Uluntu

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954)

Ngokulindelekileyo ityala elidume kakhulu kwimbali yaseMerika, [[FLT: 0] Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yaseTopeka yavakalisa ukuba ucalucalulo lohlanga kwizikolo zikawonke wonke lwalungalingani ngokwemvelo, ibhukuqa imfundiso “ehlukeneyo kodwa ilingana” yemfundiso ye . Ferguson [[FLT]] [[FLT]]] [iiiisigqibo]. [iimeko] yayiyisiphelo seqhinga elisemthethweni elicwangciswe [[FLT:]] [iiiiiiiiiiiimali esemthethweni yemali ekhoyo yemeko yesizwe] [[[FLTLT:5], ekhokelwa yiNkulungisa yeNkuhlela yeNkuhlela ePhakamileyo. Ngexesha elizayo uGciso olulungileyo. Ngexesha lokuLwithiso lweNkulwamgaqo yeNkulwano.[F Tsha yayiseko i-Frase.]

Virginia (1967) enothando

i- Virginia, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ngamxhelo mnye yawisa imithetho karhulumente ekwalelwe umtshato wezizwe. Ityala laziswa nguRichard noMildred Love, isibini sezizwe ngezizwe esasigwetyelwe unyaka entolongweni kuMthetho we-Vrinian weNkikelo yoLuntu. INkundla yathi umtshato wawungumthetho osisiseko kwaye ukwahlulwa kwemithetho yomtshato kwaphula zombini iSikhuseli somtshato ne-'Umgangatho ka-Inethi Classistesssss of the Idemic Resimential Rempletences. Esi sigqibo asizange sidibanise kuphela siphelise isiseko somthetho womtshato olinganayo kamva. [[FLT]

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Eminyaka engamashumi amahlanu emva , iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaphinda yandisa amalungelo omtshato, ngokuya kwizibini ezifanayo ezingokwasemgangathweni. Obergefell v. Hodges, iNkundla yagqiba ukuba ilungelo elingundoqo lokutshata liqinisekiswe kwizibini ezingokwasemgangathweni ezifanayo ngaphantsi kweMbutho woMsebenzi noKhuselo kaNomlinganiselo ka-Clausdes. [5] Isigqibo se-564] saba soyisoyiso soyiso soyikiso esimbali lweLBTQ+ amalungelo nokugweba kobuntlalo, ukubhukuqa kumazwe angaphezulu kwezishumi elinesibini. Ityala laqhubeka lineziphumo zamashumi eminyaka esemthethweni yokungahambiswa kwemvumelo-mthetho, nasemva kokuchasana kwemigaqo yonqulo. [FT] [F][5] [FFFF] [FF] [F] [FT] [F] kunye neST]

Bostock v. Clayton County (2020)

Kutshanje, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba kwi Bostock v. Clayton County iSihlomelo VII soMthetho waMalungelo e-Civil we-1942 sikhusela abasebenzi ekucalucalulweni okusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesondo okanye kumgangatho we-overhente. Isigqibo sachaza ukuvalwa kocalulo ngokwesini ukuquka indlela yokuzichaza, ukukhutshwa kobudoda, ukufundwa okuye kwakhuphiswano okukhoyo kangangamashumi eminyaka. Umthetho wamela ukhuselwano olubalulekileyo lwezikhuseli zemisebenzi yeLBTQ+ Merika kwaye wabonakalisa ukuba ukutolika komsebenzi kusisisixhobo sokugweba kwentlalo.

Ucelomngeni Oluqhubekayo Kwinkqubo Esemthethweni

Ubuhlanga Nokutshintshatshintsha Kwendlela Esetyenziswayo

Ngaphandle kwezi ziganeko ziphawulekayo, inkqubo esemthethweni iyaqhubeka isenza kube nokungalingani okunzulu. I-United States inesantya esiphezulu sokuvalelwa kwemiqathango ehlabathini, kwaye amaMelika amnyama avalelwe ngaphezu kwesantya esiphindwe kahlanu kweminye imiqathango yabamhlophe, ngokwemithetho ekwindawo ejongene nomgangatho webala. Imithetho yemiqathango ye- inqanda-mthetho. Le ngxaki ayibangelwanga yingozi; yimveliso yemithetho engamashumi eminyaka enjengemfazwe yeziyobisi, igalelo elinyanzelekileyo, kunye nemithetho encinane ekwimiqatha esetyenziswayo, kunye nemithetho enqabileyo enqanda imimandla ephakathi kwemibalwayo. Iinkqubo zokulwa kwemida yebala. Iinkqubo zobuhlanga, ukusuka kwi-flipslyflisk, iye yabethwa kwiinkundla ezihlala zikhona kwezinye iindawo. Iinkqubo zomthetho ezilawula, iingxengxenga, kunye nezigwebo ezigwetyiswe ngamahlwempu, ezisoloko ukumelana koo, iingxwabo abangamahlwempu, abangenayo, abangena mvume, abanokujamelana nako,

Ukuvalelwa kwabantu abaninzi akuchaphazeli nje kuphela; kuphazamisa uluntu lonke, kususa amalungelo okuvota kwizigidi zabantu ngokuchitha imithetho ehlasileyo, kwaye kudala utshintsho olusisigxina olubekwe phantsi ngokwemigaqo-siseko. Imigudu yotshintsho, efana neyokuQala i-Opt Step Act ka-201818, iye yenza inkqubela yolwandiso, kodwa utshintsho lwenkqubo yemithetho lufuna okungaphezulu kunokuncitshiswa kwemithetho yezomthetho /Ifuna ukuqwalaselwa ngokusisiseko kwendlela edalwe ngayo inkqubo yokusesikweni yolwaphulo-mthetho nesetyenziswa yiyo.

Ucinezeleko Lwezinto Ezininzi Ngenkulungwane Yama - 21

Ilungelo lokuvota, ekuthiwa likhuselwe nguMthetho we-Prefect we-15th Communition kunye noMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1965, uhlala uhlaselwa. Ngo-2013, isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi-. ISinyuko seSiqithi se-Shelby v. IHander[ yagatya iCandelo 5 lamaLungelo, eyayifuna imigaqo yocalucalulo yembali ukuze ifumane uvukelo lwamazwe phambi kokuba itshintshe imithetho yokuvota. Emva koko, ithetha ukuba ngaphaya kwelizwe kugqithe imithetho ethintelayo engqongqo ye-ithoboli, icuthe iiyure zokuqala zokuvota, ukurhola, ukuvala iindawo zokuvota, nokuvala iindawo zokuhlola kwimimandla ephantsi kwe-okisi. Le migaqo isoloko ithethelelwa ngokuthetha “kweqile, ngaphandle kobuqhotho lwemiba elingo. [i-AFogrot] ingueggrn i-oggrn i-ogrrencel i

Izithintelo Zezoqoqosho Kubulungisa

Ukufikelela kwicandelo elisemthethweni elisisiseko lobulungisa, kodwa izigidi zamaMerika azinako ukufikelela kwigqwetha. Kwimicimbi yasekuhlaleni . njengemeko-ntle, ukugxothwa kwabantwana, ukuqokelelwa kwemali ebotshelelweyo, nokufuduka (ukungagunyaziswa). Umphumo ngowokuba abantu abaphantsi befikelwa ziinguqu ngokufuthi bajongene neenkundla ezintsonkothileyo, ingakumbi ngokuchasene namagqwetha, amatyala, okanye amaqumrhu karhulumente. Imibutho yoncedo esemthethweni, exhaswa ngemali ngejelo elingumsebenzi wemali yemali karhulumente, isebenza kuphela inxalenye yabasweleyo, njengoko ikhokelelwa yimicimbi esemthethweni. [[FLT.0] ISebe lezentengombutho ephantsi lifuna ukubonelelwa kweenkonzo zenkundla ezingokwasemthethweni kunye neenkqubo zoburhulumente zoncedo olusemthethweni, kunye nokurhoxandulo lwemali, i-Arentervey yemali esemthethweni, kunye nokusetyenziswa ngokusetyenziswa kwemithetho yenkundla yoluntu, esemthethweni, kunye neeprojective, ezifuna ukusetyenziswa koncedo olufana nezibonelelo zezo zomthetho, ezisemthethweni

Indima Yokungagunyaziswa Kwasemthethweni

Intshukumo eziqhutywa ngesondo kunye noxinzelelo lukawonke-wonke

Utshintsho olusemthethweni lunqabile ukusenzeka kwi-athom; phantse lusoloko lundulela amatyala aqhubekayo. Imo ye-volution Rights yaMalungelo oluntu yee-1950 kunye nee-1960 esetyenziswa njengemibutho ehlala abantu, inkululeko yokukhwela, ukukhahlela, kunye nohambo olukhawulezileyo ukuze kutsale ingqalelo yesizwe kwiqela lesizwe kunye nenkohlakalo. Le ntshukumo idala imithetho yezopolitiko elawulayo enjengomthetho we-19649 kunye neZiko lokuThibelela amaLungelo lwamalungelo abantu abaNtu, ngokufanayo, umbutho walenze wasasaza ulutsha olunogonyamelo nemikhosi yempiko, ikhokelela ekuphuculweni kweendawo kunye nemithetho yezolawulo, iimfuno zecamera, kunye nokuvalwa komthetho wemibutho ekwaminyangweni. IGrasrosters ezifana nemibutho ye-NACPS ibikho ngeminyaka engaphezulu kwekhulu, isebenzisa i-agradiod, inkqubela yamalungelo karhulumente kawonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke.

Uncedo Olusemthethweni Nomsebenzi we-proBono

Imibutho yoncedo olusemthethweni inikela umnatha wokhuseleko olubalulekileyo ngokunikela iinkonzo zomthetho ezingeyomfuneko okanye eziphantsi kubantu abangakwazi ukufikelela igqwetha lobuqu. Amaqela anjenge- Iinkonzo ze-Legional Services Corporation, iZiko lobuLuntu lobuLuntu, kunye neprojekthi yeInnocence iphumeze iimpumelelo ezibalulekileyo, ukusuka ekukhuseleni ikhusibonda enokuba iimbacuthe ngokungafanelekanga amabanjwa agwetyiweyo. Imigudu e-pronoo esetyenziswa ngamagqwetha azimeleyo inceda ibhulokhwe, nangona ifikeleleka kancinci. Ngoku iinkampani ezininzi ze-probo, kunye nezikolo zingenisa imfundo yezikoliso ezivumela abafundi ukuba bamele abaxhasi phantsi kolawulo. Ezi migudu ayikulungiselela nje ukulungiselela ukusetyenziswa komelo lwabo; zikwanenza imigaqo engekho semthethweni nemithetho engekho sikweni.

Imfuneko Eqhubekayo Yotshintsho Lomgaqo - siseko

Ukungalingani okusemthethweni akunakucombulula ukulingana kwezakhiwo. Abenzi bemithetho kufuneka bamisele imithetho ethetha ngezizathu eziziingcambu zokungabi nabulungisa, ubuhlanga, ukungafundi, ukungalingani kwemfundo, kunye nokungakhathalelwa kwempilo. Utshintsho olufana nokususa ibheyile yemali, ukuphelisa ulwaphulo-mthetho olunxulumene nobuhlwempu, ukwandisa ukubuyiselwa kwamalungelo okuvota, nokufaka imigaqo esekelwe ekubekeni imigaqo esemthethweni efuna ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho yezomthetho kwindawo ethile, urhulumente, umgangatho, namanqanaba okhoyo. Intlangano efana neProject:0] iProjective [[ kunye neZiko lomsebenzi we-Brennan elingumsebenzi wokuzincomela uphando, kunye nokusetyenziswa kwemithetho esemthethweni yokuguqula uphandoqokozo, kunye nezicelo zazo zisetyenziswa kwizixeko-mazwe namazwe ahlukeneyo. Kodwa inkqubela esemva, imfazwe ephambili, imfazwe ephakathi kwezizwe eziqhelekileyo, imele iphinde iphelelwe kwisizukulwana somsebenzi esinguqulukusebenza ngolulo.

Iimbono Zamazwe Ngamazwe Ngeenkqubo Zomthetho Nezobulungisa

ISindululo Sehlabathi Lonke Samalungelo Abantu

Nangona eli nqaku lijolise ingqalelo eUnited States, iinkqubo ezisemthethweni ezikhusela amalungelo abantu zikho kumazwe amaninzi nakwiqondo lezizwe ngezizwe. ISindululo soNdebelo Lonke Lwamalungelo Abantu (UDHR), esamkelwa yiZizwe Ezimanyeneyo ngo-1948, simisela amalungelo asisiseko oorhulumente abafanele bawaxhase, kuquka ilungelo lokuphila, inkululeko, nokhuseleko; inkululeko ekuthuthunjisweni nasekukhotyokisweni; ukulingana phambi komthetho; nokunelungelo lokufumana isicombululo esisebenzayo. Nangona iUDHR ngokwayo, iye yaphembelela izivumelwano ezininzi zezizwe ngezizwe ngezizwe ezininzi kwaye yaphembelela imimiselo yemithetho-siseko. Noko ke, inkundla yezizwe ngezizwe ihlala ibuthathaka. Iinkundla zezizwe ngezizwe zonke, njengeNkuquluko ye-CICC) neNkundla yaseYurophu yamaLungu, inokuva amatyala kodwa ixhomekeke kwimeko entlalo-yokuba kugunyazwano.

Iinkqubo zomthetho ezithelekisayo

Amazwe awahlukeneyo afikelela kumalungelo abantu ngezithethe ezihlukeneyo zomthetho. KuManyano oMgaqo-siseko waMalungelo Oluntu ka-1998, i-European Convention on Human Rights ingenisa umthetho wasekhaya, ivumela abantu ukuba bacel ’ umngeni ukwaphulwa kwemithetho yeenkundla ze-UK. ISicatshulwa saseKhanada samaLungelo nenkululeko zisetyenziselwa ukuphelisa imithetho ephazamisa amalungelo abantu, kuquka ukuvalwa komtshato osusiweyo kunye nemiqathango yokuqhomfa. Imithetho yezomthetho yoMzantsi Afrika ibandakanya amalungelo entlalo nangokwezoqoqosho, njengamalungelo endlu, ukunyamekela impilo nemfundo. Le mizekelo ibonisa ukuba iinkqubo zomthetho zinokwenziwa ukuze zikhusele amaqela acushwe ngokulula, kodwa kwakhona zibonisa ukuba amalungelo okungekho ngokweentloko, kufuneka ziqwalaselwe inkundla zezezentengowamanyeneyo, zize zihlale zikho iinkundla zeze

Isiphelo: UMthetho njengomsebenzi ophilayo

Impembelelo yeenkqubo zomthetho kumalungelo abantu kunye nokulunga koluntu ayiphelelanga. Imbali ibonisa ukuba nangona izigqibo zemfundo kunye nomthetho zinokuvula iminyango, zinokuvalwa kwakhona ngokulandelayo, ngokutshintsha-tshintsha kwezobupolitika, okanye ngemigudu yamabomu yokuwadiliza. Ilifa Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo ixatyelwe kukuzingisiswa zisikolo esizingisileyo; uMthetho wamaLungelo ka-196565 ukhutshwe yiNkundla ephakamileyo yeNkundleni; kwaye ikhuselwano yeNkundla ephakamileyo yezomthetho ehlala ikhuphisana. Kanti umthetho usala ungomnye wezixhobo ezinamandla kakhulu ezikhoyo zokuhambela ubulungisa. I-Rhovisi ekwasemthethweni ifuna ukusetyenziswa ngabameli bayo nabamele ukuphelisela ukulinganiselwa kwayo. Iinkqubo zomthetho-mthetho-mthetho aziphenduli; uthotyelwa kwimibutho, ucwe, uluvo lwamayela kuluntu, yaye ulungelelaniswa, ulungelelwano lweziko, uluntu, uluvo lwamaniso, yaye u

Ekugqibeleni, umthetho ubonakalisa indlela elawulwa ngayo ngabantu. Ukuba sifuna inkqubo yomthetho ekhusela ngokwenene amalungelo abantu kwaye iqhubele phambili imigaqo-mthetho yentlalo, kufuneka sivume ukuzama ngamandla ukwenza loo mbono ibe yokwenene. Uloyiso lwexesha elidlulileyo lunikela iplani, kodwa ucelomngeni lwemfuno ekhoyo, ukunyathela, kunye nomanyano. Njengoko igqwetha lamalungelo abantu uConstance Baker Motley lakha lathi, “Inkqubo esemthethweni inganyanzela ukuba kuvulwe iingcango, kwaye maxa wambi ikhokelele kwabatsha ababengekho ngaphambili." Lungaphakath ’