Ukwazisa: INkundla Ephakamileyo njengeNkundla Ebalaseleyo Eyila Ukulingana

INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States ibisoloko isebenza njengendawo enzima yokulwa amalungelo okulingana, ichaza umGaqo-siseko ngeendlela eziye zaguqula ibutho lamaMelika. Ngoxa iNkundla isoloko isebenza njengesiko elithe ngcembe, izigqibo zayo ezibonisa ukulingana ngamaxesha athile ziye zahamba phambili kwizigqibo zikawonke wonke nakumthetho wezenzo zomthetho. Ukusuka ekubetheleleni ikhethe lobuhlanga ukuya ekuqapheleni umtshato olinganayo, le miqathango yokulawula imigaqo esemthethweni kuphela kodwa ikwayiguqula indlela amaMerika aqonda ngayo isidima, inkululeko, kunye nenkuselo efanayo phantsi komthetho. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa ezona zikhulu izigqibo ziphambili zezigqibo zamalungelo alinganayo, libonisa ukuqwalasela ngakumbi kwimvelaphi yawo, ukuqiqamba, kunye neziphumo ezihlala ixesha elingapheliyo eziye zakhiwa ngayo okanye ezinye iimeko, ziguqule.

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954): Ukudideka "Ukwahlula Kodwa Ulinganisene"

Okungasemva

Phantse ngamashumi amathandathu eminyaka, imfundiso ye "yahlukene kodwa iyalingana" emiselwe ku Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) yagunyazisa ucalulo lohlanga kwizakhiwo zikawonke-wonke. Ekuqaleni koo1950, iNaACP Legin Defense Fund, ikhokelwe nguTur Marshall olungileyo, ngokuqulukileyo wacelsa ingxubusho yokuba ukwahlukana ngokwako kwakwenza umonakalo wengqondo kubantwana abamnyama. Iimeko zamiselwa phantsi Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yemfundo[ ivela kuKansa, kuMzantsi Carolina, naseDelikan.

Ummiselo Opheleleyo

IJaji enkulu u-Earl Warren wanikela imbono engqinelanayo ngoMeyi 17, 1954, ivakalisa ukuba "izakhiwo zemfundo ezahlukeneyo azilingani ngokwemvelo". INkundla yawamkela amaqhinga ePalesty, isithi ukwahlukana kwezikolo zikawonke wonke kwaphula umthetho weSikhuseli esilinganayo sika-Claus weSinyusi-14. Isigqibo sasifutshane kwaye sifikeleleka, sijoliswe ekunciphiseni ukuchasa.

Ukusebenza nokuxhathisa

Kunyaka olandelayo, Brown II (155) eyalela ukuba iqhubeke ngesantya sangaphakathi," ibinzana elivumela amaphondo aseMazantsi ukuba alibazise kwaye axhathise. Ukuxhathisa okugqithisileyo, kuquka ukuvalwa kwezikolo zikawonke-wonke eVirginia kunye nokumiswa kweSlock Motical High School, kwathatha inkqubela-phambili. Yathatha umthetho wamalungelo ka-644 kwaye kamva yayalelwa kwinkundla ephakamileyo ukunyanzelisa umanyano olunentsingiselo.

Ilifa

Brown yayiligumbi elisemthethweni leNtlanganiso yamaLungelo e-Ovinial. Yaphelisa ukwahlulwa kohlanga kuzo zonke izibonelelo zikawonke-wonke kunye nabaxhasi abaphefumlelweyo ukunyanzela ukulingana ekuvoteni, emsebenzini, naseluhlalweni. Nangona ucalucalulo lweentlanga ezikolweni luqhubeka namhlanje ngenxa yeemeko zentlalo-ntle, umgaqo kaBrown we-Status wocation awugunyaziswanga ngumthetho ozinzileyo. Ubalo olupheleleyo lwembono nge-Oyez.

Virginia (1967): Ilungelo lokutshata Nabani na

Okungasemva

ULovings [1]a omhlophe nebhinqa elimnyama − batshate eWashington, D.C., ngo1958. Ekubuyeleni kwabo eVirginia, babanjwa ngenxa yokwaphula umthetho karhulumente wobuhlanga wobuhlanga, owathi wayenza umtshato wobuhlanga wolwaphulo-mthetho. Bagwetyelwa unyaka omnye entolongweni, bexhotyiswe ngemeko abawushiyayo urhulumente.

Ulawulo

Inkundla ePhakamileyo yangqinelana ngokusilela imithetho echasene nokungavumelani kwemithetho, ibambelele ekubeni umtshato ulilungelo elisisiseko nokuba ukwahlulwa kohlanga kuxhomekeke ekuqwalaselweni ngokungqongqo. IJaji enkulu uWarren yabhala: "Inkululeko yokutshata kudala iqwalaselwe njengenye yamalungelo omntu ngamnye abalulekileyo afunekayo kusukelo locwangco lolonwabo." Isigqibo esiphuthiweyo kwimithetho ephuthileyo kumaphondo ali-16 aseleyo.

Isiphumo

Uthando lwaphelisa uvalelo olusemthethweni kwisizwe esithile kwilizwe lonke. Kwasekwa nesiseko samatyala okulingana komtshato wamva, njengokuqiqa kwayo `ukungatshati' ukuba inkululeko yokungatshati ayinakuthintelwa ngocalulo olungaqhelekanga olungokohlanga-lulo-------------------lugqithiselwe kwizibini ezifanayo ezisezihlalweni zase-Obergefell. Ngonyaka wama-2024, imitshato yeentlanga ngezizwe yakha malunga nama-20% ayo onke amatshatime amatsha kwi-U. [indel] Ulwazi lophando lwe-PT]

Isihloko se - IX neNkundla Ephakamileyo: Ucalucalulo Ngesini Kwimfundo

Okungasemva

Isihloko se-IX seZigqibo zemfundo zowe-1971 ziyalwalela ucalucalulo "ngesiseko sesini" nakuyiphi na inkqubo yemfundo efumana inkxaso-mali karhulumente. Nangona singesiso isigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo ngokwayo, lo mthetho uphenjelelwe yimithetho echaza umgangatho wawo.

Ityala Elingundoqo: Isixeko Segrove Ne-Davis

Grove City College v. Bell [19984], iNkundla ibekelwe umda weSihloko se-IX kwiinkqubo ezithile ezifumana imali karhulumente, hayi lonke isakhiwo. IBhunga layirhoxisa le nkcazelo nge-Civil Rights Reformation Active Act ka 1988. [[FLT]] Firdalin v. IGwint Counter Counter Schools [[FLT Countric:] [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [1992]], iNkuvumela ilahleko yemali yekhethelo ngesondo, kuquka ukukhathazwa ngokwesini. [[FLT:] V. Countriage of Ezes trainbources trans Comment Comment of Educationsting [[FFLT]] (1999]) ezigcinwe zinokuba zikhomba ezilungele ukukhathazwa kwezifundo ze-yobufana neyobufana neyo.

Impembelelo Kwimizila Nangaphaya Kweenkqubo

Isihloko IX saguqula imidlalo yamabhinqa: amanani okuthabatha inxaxheba kumantombazana asezikolweni zamabanga aphakamileyo aqhushumbisa ukusuka ku-1 ku-2 ngonyaka ka1971 ukuya kutsho kumntu omnye kwaba-2 namhlanje. Umthetho ukwakhusela ukukhutshwa kosana oluphakathi, ukuqinisekisa ukufumaneka kweenkqubo ze-STEM, kwaye kwiminyaka yakutshanje, kukhe kwacatshulwa kwiimpikiswano ngokuthabatha inxaxheba kubafundi-avander-astender. INkundla ePhakamileyo ayizange iwise umthetho ngqo kuloo mbambano, kodwa iinkundla ezisezantsi zahlulelene.

Ilungelo lokufumana imfihlo ne-Autonomy e-Reproduction

Okungasemva

Ngo1969, uJane Roe (Norma McCurdy) wacell ’ umngeni umthetho waseTexas wokuba ukuqhomfa kwakwenza ulwaphulo-mthetho ngaphandle kokusindisa ubomi bukamama. Eli tyala labekwa ligqwetha uSarah Ligarton, liphikisa ngelithi umthetho waphula ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko webhinqa lokuba lingabi nanto yanto.

Ulawulo

IJaji uHarry Blackmun wabhala uluvo lwesixhenxe-2, efumana ukuba i-System Procession Clause yoMphetho-weshumi elinesine ukhusela ilungelo lebhinqa lokukhetha ukuqhomfa. INkundla yaseka isakhiwo esimlungelelanisayo: kwikhandlela lokuqala, isigqibo sashiyelwa kwibhinqa nogqirha wakhe; emva kokukwazi ukuqhomfa, amaziko angakuthintela ukuqhomfa ngaphandle kokuba kuyimfuneko ukukhusela ubomi okanye impilo yomfazi.

Uphuhliso Lwamva

I-Casey (1992) endaweni yesakhiwo esimfutshane nge "umthwalo onzima" umgangatho kodwa yaphinda yaqinisekiswa ukubamba kwe Roe's esembindini. Noko ke, kwi Dobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [2022], iNkundla elawula ukuqhomfa i-Roced Roe ibuyisela ummiselo wokukhupha isisu kumazwe. Njengo-2024, malunga nesiqingatha samazwe sivaliwe okanye sithintelwe kakhulu ukuqhomfa, ngexa abanye belumkelekile. Isigqibo se-Jackson's Orbet serboration [irvetic systtion] [[FLT] [202] [202], iNkubuyisela ummiselo wokukhupha umthamo womlomo wesihlulo-omatiko], i-opolitiki eqhubekayo.

Ilifa

Intambo ihlala yenye yezigqibo ezithandabuzekayo nezineziphumo eziphambili kwimbali yaseMelika. Yavuselela omabini amalungelo okuzala kunye nentshukumo zokuthintela ukuphuma kwenzala, kwaye ukuguqulwa kwayo kubonisa ukuchanabeka kwamalungelo okulingana ekutshintsheni amaziko amakhulu. Funda i Roe v. Wade eCornell LII.

Graiter v. Bollinger (2003): Isenzo sokuqinisekisa kunye nohlobo oluthile

Okungasemva

Barbara Gritter, umlungu ofaka isicelo esinamabanga aphezulu kunye novavanyo, wakhatywa ukuba amkeleke kwiYunivesithi yaseMichigan Law School. Wamangalelwa, echaza ukuba ukusebenzisa kwesikolo uhlanga njengenkalo ekuvulweni kwakwaphula umthetho we-Comement Protection Claus. Isikolo somthetho saphikisa ukuba iqumrhu labafundi ezahlukahlukeneyo lalingumdla onyanzelisayo wokuqwalasela uhlanga.

Ulawulo

IJaji uSandra Day O'Connor yakhokela isigqibo esixhasa inkqubo yesikolo somthetho. Inkundla yathi ukufikelela "ubuninzi obubalulekileyo" babafundi abambalwa abakhoyo kwakungumsebenzi onyanzelisayo, kwaye ucwangciso lwalulungiswa ngokulula kuba lwalujonge uhlanga njengelungu elinye kuphela kwingqwalasela yohlolo. O'Connor wachaza ithemba lokuba kwiminyaka engama-25, ukuvuma ukuba ugqatso lohlanga alusayi kuba yimfuneko.

Ukujika Ngqo: Abafundi Bemida Entle (2023)

Izigqibo ze Fair Adgistrations v. Harvard & UNC [2023], isininzi esi-6-3 esithe ngcipheko kwiGrithi egunyazisiweyo, sibambe elo nyathelo elisekelwe kukwamkelwa kohlanga kwikholeji lawuchasa uKhuselo lwe-Celaus olulinganayo. Inkundla yafumanisa ukuba ulwamkelo lwenkqubo lungena njongo zinokufezekisa kwaye luqeshwe i-sssssriod stadio. Le sigqibo saphelisa ukusetyenziswa kohlanga njengenkamfatho kwimfundo ephezulu eqeshiweyo ngaphaya kweUnited States, inyanzelela amaziko ukufuna ezinye iindlela zokwahlukahlukane nokhetho lwemeko kunye noluhlu oluchanakelelekileyo.

Isiphumo

Ilifa leGrThaip ngoku lingokwembali kunokuba libophelele, kodwa laguqula amashumi amabini eminyaka emigaqo-nkqubo yokuyamkela. Umthetho wama-2023 ulindeleke ukuba unciphise iinguqu zobuhlanga kwizikolo ezikhethiweyo, ingakumbi kubafundi abaMnyama nabakwi-Spashsh. uhlalutyo lwe-SCOTUSblog [ luchaza iinkcukacha zeziphumo zesigqibo.

I-United States v. Windsor (2013): Isaziso soManyano lomtshato ofanayo

Okungasemva

IDefense of Marriage Act (DOMA), eyatyikitywa ngumthetho ngowe-1996, ichazwa njengomanyano phakathi kwendoda nomfazi omnye ngenjongo zikarhulumente. UEdith Windsor watshata noThea Spyer eOntario, eKhanada ngo- 2007. Xa uSpiner wafayo, uWindsor wanyanzeleka ukuba ahlawule iirhafu zemali ezingama-350 000 kuba urhulumente akazange awuqaphele umtshato wabo. Wafaka ityala lokuhlawula i-frendrea.

Ulawulo

IJaji uAnthony Kennedy wabhala uluvo lwesihlanu-4, ukubetha iCandelo 3 leDOMA njengokwaphula ukhuseleko olulinganayo. Inkundla yaqiqa ngelithi iDOMA "ithetha ukhetho lokuziphatha kunye nesondo lwezibini ezifanayo ezingokwasemgangathweni" kwaye ibeka i "stigma" kubantwana bazo. Isigqibo asizange sifune ukuba kubekho imithetho yokuvumela umtshato omnye kodwa sifuna urhulumente ukuba avumele umtshato owenziwe ngokusemthethweni.

Isiphumo

Windsor yaba linyathelo elibalulekileyo ekulinganani komtshato, linika izibini ezitshatileyo ezingokwamanyala ithuba lokufumana iingenelo zorhulumente ezifana neenzuzo zokhuseleko loluntu olusindileyo, amalungelo okufuduka, kunye nobume bokugcinwa kwerhafu.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Ilungelo loMgaqo-siseko lomtshato ofanayo no-Sex -

Okungasemva

Ilandela Windsor, iinkundla ezininzi zesizwe zabetha umlomo wesithintelo somtshato esingokwesini. Amatyala aseMichigan, eOhio, eKentucky, naseTennessee aqiniswa phantsi [[FL:0] obergefell v. Hodges. uJim Obergefell wayefuna ukuba adweliswe njengeqabane eliseleyo kwisiqinisekiso sokufa komyeni wakhe eOhio.

Ulawulo

Kwakhona uJaji Kennedy wabhalela uninzi lwabahlanu-4, ekholelwa ukuba ilungelo lokutshata linelungelo elisisiseko eliqinisekiswe yi-Accel Process ne-Amelt Protection Clauss. Isigqibo sokurhoxiswa kwemiqathango yesizwe kumaphondo ali-14 kwaye kwafuneka ukuba onke amazwe agunyazise imvume kunye nokuqinisekisa umtshato onxulumene neentlobano zesini. Kennedy wabhala: "Akukho mtshato unzulu ngakumbi kunomtshato, kuba uquka iinjongo eziphezulu zothando, ukunyaniseka, ukuzinikela, ukubingelela kunye nentsapho."

Ucelomngeni Olunempembelelo Neluqhubekayo

Obergefell wandisa ilungelo lokutshata nezibini ezingokwasemgaqweni zinye kulo lonke ixesha, ufumana ulwamkelo oluphangaleleyo loluntu ngexesha elithile. Noko ke, emva kwesigqibo se-Dobbs ngo-2022, uMgwebi uThomas wacebisa kwisivumelwano sokuba iObergefell ifanele iphinde iphindwe iphindwe isetyenziswe, ibangela uloyiko phakathi kwe LGBTQ+ abaxhasi. IBhunga laphendula ngokugqithisa iThembelo lomtshato (2022), ngokuqinisekisa ugunyazo lwezwe lorhulumente lokuzinzo olufanayo nolwemitshato e-Explans. Noko ke, ukutshintshela kweNkuguqulo lwezinziwo zomthetho ezimeleyo ezimeleyo zishiye uzinzile kude zihambele. [[FLLG: 0] Umqulu weOyPLD [F]

Bostock v. Clayton County (2020): Ukukhusela iLGBTQ+ Abasebenzi

Okungasemva

UGerald Bostock wagxothwa emsebenzini wakhe njengomququzeleli wentlalo-ntle yabantwana kamsinya emva kokuba eqalile ukuba nenxaxheba kwiqela lokuzonwabisa loonongogo. Umbuzo wawusithi iSihloko VII soMthetho wamalungelo oluntu ka-1964, esilwalelayo ucalucalulo "ngenxa yesondo," sikhusela amafanasini kunye nabasebenzi abadlulisa amashishini.

Ulawulo

IJaji uNeil Gorfo wanikela uluvo olu-6-3 oluthi ucalucalulo olusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesondo okanye kumgangatho wokuvela kwenqanawa yesini luyikhethe "ngenxa yesondo." INkundla yaqiqa ngelithi umqeshi otshayela umntu ngabom ngokuba ngumafanasini okanye u-trangender akanakuyiphepha ityala ngokuchaza isini. Le ndlela yokubhala yamangalisa abaninzi, njengokuba uGormoth engumtyunjwa oqhelekileyo.

Isiphumo

Bostock wakhawuleza wakhusela iLGBTQ+ abasebenzi kulo lonke ilizwe, besebenzisa bonke abaqeshi abanomsebenzi ubuncinane abali-15. Bakwaneziphumo ezimaza kwezinye iindawo zomthetho, njengendlela yokunyamekela impilo nezindlu, apho kukho imimiselo efanayo yesondo. Iinkundla ezisezantsi zahlulelene ukuba ingqiqo kaBostock iyasebenza ku-Sihloko-IX, nto leyo ekhokelela ekungeni ngokuqhubekayo kwemicu ye-transgender kunye nokungena kwindlu yangasese.

Isiphelo: Indaleko eqhubekayo yamalungelo omgangatho

Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo eziphawula ukulingana kwamalungelo zibonisa amandla nokungafezeki kotoliko lomgaqo-siseko. Ukusuka kuBrown ukuya kuBostock, iNkundla maxa wambi iye yasebenza njengomgada wotshintsho lwentlalo, isikwe ngesixhobo sokwandiswa kwentsingiselo yokhuseleko olulinganayo. Kodwa iqhinga lokulawula alikho mgca: uRoe wabhukuqwa, uGreate walawula, kwaye u-Oberge wabhuda wajongana nezisongelo ezinokwenzeka. Isizukulwana ngasinye sogwebo sizisa iintandabulumko ezintsha, kwaye ukwenziwa kweNkuquluko lungazisa iziphumo ezitshintshileyo.

Ukuqonda ezi zigqibo kubalulekile ekuqondeni ukwakhiwa komthetho wokulingana kwamaMelika. Zinikela umiselo olusemthethweni lomthetho wokulawula okuqhubekayo kwe-odoli (ukungalingani kohlanga, ubufana, inkululeko yokuzala, okanye amalungelo e-LGBTQ+). Njengoko kuvela imibandela emitsha, ukusuka kucalulo olungelulo olungokwasemthethweni ukuya kulwaphulo-mthetho lonqulo, imigaqo ebekwe phantsi kwezi meko iza kuqhubeka ivavanywa kwaye, apho kuyimfuneko, iqwalaselwa kwakhona. Umzabalazo wokulingana awupheliselwa; uphuhliswa, umisela nje ulawulo olunye lomthetho obalulekileyo ngexesha elinye.