Amandla Anyamezelayo Okuzikhethela KuMthetho waseMerika

Ulwalamano oluphakathi korhulumente worhulumente kunye namazwe luye lwaba luxinezeleko oluchazayo kumthetho womgaqo-siseko waseMelika ukususela ekusungulweni kwesizwe. Entliziyweni yale ngxaki kungumbuzo obalulekileyo: ngawaphi amalungelo akhuselwe nguMgaqo-siseko owe-U.S. asebenza kurhulumente kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni, kwaye asebenza kurhulumente wengingqi kuphela? Le nkqubo ayiphindanga yamiswa umthetho nemigaqo kodwa iphinde yachaza intsingiselo yobumi baseMelika ngokuqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo angundoqo akalawulwa zizinto ezinkulu zasekuhlaleni.

Isenzo sokukhetha simele umba ophakathi kweembono ezimbini ezigqithisileyo: ukuba iBhili yamaLungelo isebenza ngokupheleleyo kumazwe (ukwenziwa kwento) kwaye ayisebenzi konke (ukuqonda kwangaphambi kwemfazwe). Endaweni yoko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ithathe indlela ejongene neceba, ivavanya ilungelo ngalinye kwaye igqiba ukuba ibaluleke kakhulu kusini na kwinkululeko nokusesikweni ukuba mayikhuselwe ekuchatshazweni ngurhulumente. Le meko-ndlela ngomzimba ivelise isityebi kwaye ngamanye amaxesha ikhuphisana nequmrhu lomthetho eliqhubeka liguquka.

Ukuqonda igalelo elikhethiweyo kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofuna ukuqonda indlela esebenza ngayo i-operalism yaseMerika. Ichaza isizathu sokuba urhulumente angakwazi ukuseka unqulo olusemthethweni, isizathu sokuba amapolisa kufuneka afunde izilumkiso zeMiranda, nesizathu sokuba iibhodi zesikolo zingakwazi ukuvala iincwadi ngenxa nje yokuba zingavumelani neengcamango ezinazo. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa imvelaphi yale mfundiso, inkqubela yayo yembali, impembelelo yayo ecacileyo kumthetho nemigaqo-mthetho, kunye neengxaki zanamhlanje eziqhubeka zivavanya imida yayo.

Ukuqonda Imfundiso Yokuzikhethela

Isiseko somGaqo-siseko

Imfundiso yokuqukwa ngokukhethiweyo ixhomekeke kumbhalo we Firententh Amendment , ivunyiwe ngo1868. Icandelo Elinye lenguquko livakalisa ukuba akukho rhulumente oya "kuphelisa nawuphi na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo elindelekileyo yomthetho. Le Nkqubo ka-Clausle yajika yasebenzisa ngayo iNkundla ePhakamileyo yamalungelo kaRhulumente kamva.

Kwimbali enkulu yaseMerika, iBhili yamaLungelo yayiqondwa ukuba inyanzelise urhulumente worhulumente worhulumente kuphela. Barron v. Baltimore (1833), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi ukuGunyaniswa kweMpanzi yesihlanu ka-Clauskoste akusetyenziswanga kumazwe, imisela ukuba iBhili yamaLungelo ayiwanga amandla karhulumente. Oko kuqonda okubanjwa kamashumi eminyaka, nasemva kokwenziwa kweGqibelo lwe 1449th Amendulementation, njengoko iNkuqululo ePhakade yachaza i-andle i-antemple.

Incam yokutshintsha yafika ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini, xa iNkundla yaqalisa ukubuza enoba amalungelo athile ayebaluleke kakhulu ukuba aye "wafakwa" kwisiqinisekiso se-Act Claus's Procession senkululeko. Ukuba ilungelo laligqalwa njengesiseko, amatyala ayemele ukulihlonela kanye njengokuba urhulumente wesizwe wenza. Ukuba akunjalo, amaphondo ahlala ekhululekile ukulawula okanye emisela oko kufanelekileyo, ngokokulawulwa komgaqo-siseko nemithetho yawo kuphela.

Intshukumo

INkundla ePhakamileyo isoloko iyigatya ingcamango yokuququzelela, ebiyakusebenzisa iBhili yamaLungelo onke kumazwana kumgama omnye wokufakelwa. IJaji uJohn Marshall Harlan yaxhasa le ndlela kukwahlukana kwakhe, kodwa inkoliso ayizange yamkele. Endaweni yoko, iNkundla yamkela indlela yokukhetha ukuqukwa , ihlola ilungelo ngalinye ngokobuqu ukugqiba enoba "likholisile kusini na kwingcamango yenkululeko eyayaliwe""

IJaji Benjamin Cardozo yachaza lo mgangatho kwi Palko v. Connecticut [1937], ichaza ukuba kuphela lawo malungelo akwimeko "yokwenyani yenkululeko eyayalelweyo" kufuneka afakwe. Amalungelo angowe-"bunzululwazi" okanye "e-Trivia" awafanelekanga. Lo mgangatho ungqineke ethambile ngokwaneleyo ukuvumela iNkundla ukuba ikhuphe amalungelo amatsha ngexesha elokuba igcine umgaqo wokuba akuyo onke amalungiselelo eBhili lamaLungelo ayimfuneko kwinkqubo efanelekileyo.

Namhlanje, phantse zonke iinkuselo ezikwiBhili yamaLungelo zidityanisiwe kumaphondo. Owona mahluko uphambili kukungavunyelwa kweSithathu soHlaziyo kumajoni, imfuneko ebalaseleyo yokuchophela iMpatho-mda yesihlanu, kunye nelungelo leSebe seSigqibo lokuHlaziya ityala lasekuhlaleni. La malungiselelo akafakwanga nxaxheba kuba iNkundla ayikhange iwafumanise engundoqo kwinkululeko yaseMerika.

Imbali Ebonisa Ukuzikhethela

Izinto Eziqalayo: Ukubeka Umsebenzi Oza Kuqala

Ibali lokukhetha liqala nge Gitlow v. New York (1925). Benjamin Gitlow wayengumxhasi wentlalo ejongene nentlalo-ntle wayenolwaphulo-mthetho oluvalelwe phantsi kwenkululeko yezaphuli-mthetho yaseNew York ngokupapasha isibhengezo sokuzibiza kokubhukuqwa kukarhulumente. Nangona iNkundla Ephakamileyo ixhasa ukunyanzeliswa kweGitlow', yenza ingxelo yenguquko kwidicta: "Ngokuba sinoko kwaye sicinga ukuba inkululeko yokuthetha kunye neyoomatshini bokushicilela (ikhuselwa ngokuqala kwiBridmentmentmentamentance nguCongresstion.) iphakathi kweemfanelo ezingundoqo ze-'i-'libribs ikhuselwe kwinkqubo efunekayo ye-Genethiedemidiat transformationsting i-dmigconveddys."

Olu qikelelo luvule ucango lwezindululo zexesha elizayo ukuphikisa ukuba enye inkululeko yokuHlaziya kokuqala, kwaye ekugqibeleni ezinye iiBhili zokhuselo lwamaLungelo, zikwafanele zifakwe. Nearboard v. Minnesota[FL:1] [1931], iNkundla yaquka inkululeko yokucofa, igalela umthetho karhulumente owawuvumela ukuvinjwa kweencwadi ngaphambili ezazibalwa "okrusal" okanye "zikhohlakele". .Connet v. Connectic[F:] (1940]), iNkundla yagunyazisa i-Free Execrection Claus, ukukhusela iimfunognome zezo zelizwe.

La matyala angaphambili amisela isikhokelo sokuzibandakanya okukhethiweyo: ikhaligathi-khampathi evavanya umthetho karhulumente kumacandelo omgaqo-siseko karhulumente, iNkundla ihlola ukuba ilungelo elikhoyo libalulekile kusini na, kwaye ukuba kunjalo, urhulumente kufuneka athethelele ukuchasana kwayo phantsi komgangatho ofanelekileyo wokuhlola. Le nkqubo yabhebhetyebhetyeka kancinci ekuqaleni, ngamalungelo ambalwa aqukiweyo kumashumi eminyaka emva .Gitlow[

INkundla YaseWarren Yavukela

Obona bubanzi buphawulekayo bokuququzelela okukhethiweyo kwenzeke ngexesha leNtloko yeJaji ePhakamileyo uWarren ukususela ngo1959 ukuya ku1969. Inkundla yaseWarren yawajonga kakhulu amalungelo abantu yaza yasebenzisa amalungiselelo amaninzi eBhili yamaLungelo kumazwe, ingakumbi lawo anxulumene nenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho. Eli xesha laguqula ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho waseMerika kunye nomthetho wesizwe ophinde wamiswa.

Mapp v.O. (1961), iNkundla yaquka umthetho weSine wokushenxiswa koMphetho-mda, iphethe ukuba ubungqina obufunyenwe ngokungekho mthethweni abunakusetyenziswa ekumangaleleni kukarhulumente. Gideon v. Wainright[FLT] [1963] [63], iNkuqulu lweNkupho iquka ilungelo leSihlaziyo seSithandathu lokunika isiluleko, ifuna ukuba kunikwe amagqwethawe amatyala akwityala efesili. [[FLT] [FLT]

INkundla yaseWarren yaquka uthintelo lweSihlaziyo sesibhozo sokwamkelwa kwesohlwayo esikhohlakeleyo nesingaqhelekanga Robinson v. California (1962) kunye nelungelo lesiThathu loMphengululo woMphetho-mda kwityala elikhawulezileyo Klopefer v. umNtla weCarolina [1967]). Ekupheleni kwexesha leWarren, uninzi lwenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho yokukhusela iBhili yamaLungelo lwamalungelo aye asetyenziswa kumaphondo, edala umgangatho wesizwe wezokhuseleko omele wonke amatyala.

Ixesha Lanamhlanje: Umanyano Luyaqhubeka

Inkqubo yokukhetha ayiphelanga ngeNkundla yaseWarren. IiNkundla ezilandelayo ziqhubeke ukuquka amalungelo awongezelelekileyo, nangona zihamba kancinci. Dincan v. Louisiana (1968), iNkundla yeWarren yaquka uLawulo lweSithandathu lweMbeko kumthetho wetyala lolwaphulo-mthetho olunzulu. McDonald v. Isixeko seChicago[ (2017]), iNkundla yeSigwebo sesibini sokuHlulisa i-Gqikelelwa ekunene ukuba igcineni i-ukulungisa nokuthwala izixhobo zokuzikhusela kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho. [FLT]] [FLT]Mcnaldbd v.

Isigqibo [i-McDonald sasibaluleke kakhulu ngenxa yokuba sasebenzisa ilungelo lokuba iNkundla isandul' ukuqwalaselwa njengelungelo lomntu ngamnye iDiologary of Columbia v. Heller [2008]. Oku kwabonisa ukuba abalawuli bahlala beyimfundiso ephilayo yesiseko, bekwazi ukwandisa amalungelo amatsha kumazwe naxa loo malungelo engowona angundoqo.

Isigqibo esikhulu sakutshanje senzeka kwi-Timbs v. Indiana (2029), apho iNkundla yaquka iSendmentive Recons Claus. Ityala libandakanya indoda eyathimba iRover yaseRover emalunga nee-$2,000 (R3,000) emva kokuba yagwetyelwa ukuthengisa i-heroin engamakhulu ambalwa eerandi. Inkundla yayikholelwa ukuba ukukhuselwa kwemali eninzi kakhulu kulungile kumazwe nge-Rodentine.

Indlela Umthetho wezwe olungisiwe ngayo

Indlela Oza Kwesaphuli - mthetho Nendlela Esiza Kuyiqhuba Ngayo

Impembelelo yokubandakanya ngokukhetha iinkqubo zomthetho zezaphuli-mthetho zikarhulumente ayinakuchazwa ngokugqithisileyo. Ngaphambi kokuba aququzelelwe, amatyala aqhuba iinkundla zawo zolwaphulo-mthetho ngokungakhathalelwa kakhulu kwe-oventine. Amapolisa anokusebenzisa ubungqina obufunyenwe ngokuphanda okungekho mthethweni, abamangalelwa basenokuvavanywa ngaphandle kwamagqwetha, kwaye abarhanelwayo banokuncinwa ngaphandle kokuxelelwa amalungelo abo. Ukuqulunqwa kwawa kwaziguqula konke oku.

Amazwe kwafuneka avuselele imithetho yawo yokufuna kunye nezilumkiso zokuphaphama ukuze athobele imilinganiselo yeSine Sonyuso njengoko ichazwe yiNkundla ePhakamileyo. Amasebe amapolisa kulo lonke ilizwe kwakufuneka amkele iinkqubo ezintsha zoqeqesho ukuqinisekisa abaphathi ukuba baqonde iimfuno ze Manda. Iindlu zowiso-mthetho zasekuhlaleni kwakufuneka zixhase iinkqubo zokhuseleko lukawonke-wonke ukuze zinikezele iziluleko zabamangalelwa abamangalelwa, imfuneko ehlala iphantsi kwemithetho emininzi namhlanje.

Ukufakwa koMthetho woMgaqo-nkqubo onyanzelekileyo ku [[FLT:] kuMap v.Ohio kunyanzelekile ukuba kuphetsheliswe iimeko zokucinezela ubungqina obufunyenweyo ngokwaphula uHlaziyo lwesine. Oku kwafuna iinkundla zelizwe ukuphuhlisa iinkqubo ezintsha zokuva okucacileyo kwaye kwadala intshukumisa enamandla yamapolisa ukuba athobele imilinganiselo yesiseko. Abagxeki baphikisa ngelithi le ndlela ivumela abamangalelwane netyala ukuba bakhululeke, kodwa abaxhasi bagcina iyimfuneko ukuthintela ihambo engafanelekanga yamapolisa.

Ngokufanayo, ukufakwa kwe kunelungelo lokunika icebiso ku kumthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho. IGideon v. I-Wainwright ifuna amagqwetha anikezele kubamangalelwa abangakwaziyo ukuhlawula. Esi sigqibo sakhokelela ekudalweni kwee-ofisi zokhuselo lukawonke-wonke-wonke kwimo nganye kwaye saguqula ukuqheliswa komthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho. Amazwe kwafuneka anike oovimba ababalulekileyo ukuze bahambisane nogunyazo, kunye nophawu olunikezelwe ngezi nkqubo lusaqhubeka lulucelomngeni lwenkqubo.

Ukuhlaziywa Kokuqala

Ukukhetha ukuququzelela kuye kwaba nempembelelo enkulu kwimithetho yokulawula intetho, unqulo, ukucofa, indibano, kunye nesibongozo. Ngaphambi kokuba aququzelele, amazwe ayenegunya elibanzi lokulawula ezi ndawo. Emva kokungeniswa, imithetho karhulumente kwakufuneka yanelise imigangatho yomgaqo-siseko worhulumente.

intetho ekhululekileyo, iquka intsingiselo yokuba oorhulumente abanako ukulwahlula-hlula ngokwezopolitiko ngendlela iNew York eye yayenza ngayo iGitlow imbonise yolwaphulo-mthetho. Amazwe akanakukwalela ukuqhankqalaza koxolo, ukuvalela iincwadi ezivela kumathala encwadi kawonke wonke ezisekelwe kwizinto zawo, okanye ukohlwaya abantu ngokugxeka amagosa karhulumente. Ukuqulungela kweNkundla Ephakamileyo amalungelo enkululeko yokuthetha kubandakanya ukwamkela indlela yokuzichaza egosa, kwanaxa elo gama lingathandwayo okanye licaphukisa.

Ku inkululeko yonqulo, iquka ukuba oorhulumente abanako ukuseka iinkonzo ezisemthethweni okanye ukunyanzela ukugcinwa konqulo. Imithetho karhulumente efuna ukufundwa kweBhayibhile kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke, umzekelo, yabethwa [ Avington School School sv. Schempp [1963]. Imithetho karhulumente enqabela ukuthengiswa koncwadi lonqulo okanye ifuna imvume yokukhuthulwa konqulo yalahlwa yalahlwa. Kwangaxesha elinye, ukuququququzelelwa kwelungelo labantu lokuqhelisela ukholo lwabo ngaphandle kokungenelwa ngokungafanelekanga kwemeko-mo, nangona umgangatho wokukhusela ibingumbandela wengxoxo eqhubekayo.

inkululeko yomatshini wokushicilela, iquka ulawulo olufuna amagosa kawonke-wonke ukuba angabandakanyeki ekuthinteleni iimpapasho ngaphambili ngaphandle kwezona meko zingaqhelekanga. Imithetho yethala leencwadi karhulumente kwakufuneka ihambisane nemilinganiselo efuna inkathalo ebhengezwe kwi New York Times v. Sullivan [1964], efuna amagosa kawonke-wonke ukungqina ububi bokwenene bokokuba nyuswa. Imithetho karhulumente efuna amaphephandaba apapashe iimpendulo ezivela kubaqhubi bezobupolitika yabethwa njenge miyalelo enyanzelekile.

Ubumfihlelo Nobuchule Bobuqu

Nangona ilungelo lokuzimela wedwa lingakhankanywi ngokucacileyo kwiBhili yamaLungelo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele kwelokuba ikhuselwe yi-Act Programme Claus kwaye iye yasebenzisa olu khuselo kumazwe ngokukhetha. Griswold v. Connecticut[ [1965]], iNkundla yagawula umthetho karhulumente okwalela ukusetyenziswa kokuthintela ukukhawula izibini ezitshatileyo, ifumanise ukuba umthetho waphula icandelo elikhuselwe ngokusemthethweni lento yobuqu. [[FLT:] Eisstadt. Baish[FLT] v[FLT] [3]], iNkundla yandisa oku kukhuseleko kubantu abatshatileyo.

.Roe v. [1973], iNkundla yathi ilungelo lokufumana imfihlo liquluthe isigqibo sebhinqa sokuphelisa ukukhulelwa, nangona oku kubambeka kamva kwapheliswa [ Dobs v. Jackson's Health Organization [202], eyabuyisela umthetho wokuqhomfa kumazwe. [ Isigqibo sokubamba sathinjwa kamva sipheliswe [[FLT:] simele umzekelo onqabileyo weNkuhlahlela emva kweNkundla, ibonisa ukuba imfundiso yokukhupha okukhethiweyo ayipheli.

Lawrence v. Texas [2003], iNkundla yaquka ilungelo lokubandakanyeka kwihambo yesondo yabucala, ukubetha urhulumente wesodomay imithetho. Kwaye [ Lottefell v. Hodges [2011], iNkundla ibambelele kwelokuba ilungelo lokutshata likhuselwe kakuhle yi-"Claus, ifuna onke amatyala okuqaphela imitshato enxulumene nokumanyana okuziiiiiiiiii. Ezi zigqibo zibonisa indlela ukudibanisa okuzizodwa okuye kwanwela kwaye kuyimfuneko ngayo ukuhlonela ukhetho lobuqu kwimicimbi yolwalamano olusondeleyo.

Ulungiso lomgaqo-nkqubo weRhulumente ngaphaya kommandla omninzi

Imfundo Nentetho Yecampus

Izikolo zikawonke-wonke neeyunivesithi zikarhulumente zichaphazeleke ngokukhethekileyo kukuququzelelwa ngokukhethiweyo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo iye yathi amaqela awawaniki amalungelo awo omgaqo-siseko kwisango lendlu yesikolo, kwaye amaziko emfundo karhulumente kufuneka awahlonele loo malungelo phakathi kwemida emiselwe yiNkundla.

Isithili seSikolo soLuntu soLuntu seDes Moines Independent [1969], iNkundla yathi amalungelo akhululekileyo okuthetha anwenwenwe kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke, ikhusela ilungelo lokunxiba iintambo ekuqhankqalazeni imfazwe yaseVietnam. Kamva izigqibo ziye zawuphucula lo mgaqo, zivumela izikolo ukuba zithintele ukuthetha okuphazamisayo ngokwezinto eziphathekayo okanye okukhuthaza ukusetyenziswa kweziyobisi okungekho mthethweni, kodwa zikhusela intetho yabafundi ethetha ngemicimbi yezobupolitika neyasekuhlaleni.

Iiyunivesithi zephondo kwafuneka ziqhube imfuno zoMgqino wokuqala ekulawuleni intetho yamaklasi. Imigudu yokuyila ikhowudi ethintela ukuthethwa kwentiyo okanye intetho erhabaxa isoloko ibethelelwa ziinkundla zikarhulumente njengokwaphula uMthetho wokuqala. Amazwe aye avelisa ezinye iindlela zokulungisa ucalucalulo nokukhathazwa ezikoleni ezingangqubaniyo nokuthetha okukhuselweyo.

Kwangaxeshanye, imithetho karhulumente efuna izikolo zikarhulumente zifundise izifundo ezithile zesikolo, ezifana nenkqubo yobuchule okanye indalo, iye yatshintshwa njengokungathobeli kweMimiselo kaClaus. Ngalo ndlela ukuququzelelwa kwamabinzana onqulo kubeke igalelo lorhulumente kulwazi oluphezulu kulwazi olunemfundo ngoxa kukhuselwa amalungelo abafundi ukuvakalisa iinkolelo zabo zonqulo ngaphandle kwegumbi lokufundela.

Inkululeko Yonqulo Nendawo Yokuhlala

Ukukhetha okufunekayo kumaphondo ukukhokela ulwalamano oluntsonkothileyo phakathi kwe-Free Execroem Claus ne-Clausment. Ama-United States akanakukhetha olunye unqulo ngaphezu kolunye, okanye akanakukwalela ukusetyenziswa konqulo ngokukhululekileyo ngaphandle kokunyanzelisa. Oku kuye kwafuna ukuba amazwe asungule iinkqubo ezivumela uqheliselo lonqulo ngoxa ehlonela umgaqo-siseko owiswe kumaziko onqulo.

Imithetho karhulumente efuna amashishini ukuba avale ngeCawa, eyaziwa njengemithetho yeblue [, iye yaxhaswa xa ifeza injongo yehlabathi, kodwa yabethwa phantsi xa ivuma ngokucacileyo umbhiyozo othile wonqulo. Imithetho karhulumente enika inkxaso-mali yezonqulo yeyeyokusetyenziswa kwezonqulo, ithe iNkundla ePhakamileyo iyavuma xa inxalenye yenkqubo ekhoyo kodwa ingamkeleki xa ichasene neenkonzo zikarhulumente ezithintela uncedo lwezonqulo.

UMthetho we- WobuFamedia Frecution Reformation Act kunye nemithetho yombuso efanayo iye yadala ubunkimbinkimbi obungakumbi. Le mithetho ifuna ukuba urhulumente alungelelanise uqheliselo lonqulo ngaphandle kokuba inomdla onyanzelisayo kwaye isebenzisa iindlela ezingqongqo. Ama-United States aye asebenzisa le mithetho ngokwemo-mo-mo-mo-mo-mo ukusuka kucalucaluca-caluca-calulo lwezelo lwempilo, ulungelelanisa amalungelo okungavumelana nabanye abantu ekungeneni kwiinkonzo namathuba.

Utshintsho Lobulungisa

Ukufakwa kwenkqubo yokhuseleko lolwaphulo-mthetho kuqhube utshintsho olubalulekileyo kwiinkqubo zomthetho wesizwe. Amazwana aye anika isiluleko kubamangalelwa abangenwayo, uxinzelelo olungekho mthethweni olufunyenweyo [, [[FLT:]], [[FLT:]] inika iMiranda izilumkiso [[, [[FLT]] kunye [FLT]] nezilingo ezikhawulezayo. Ezi zifunekayo zithi zinyanzeleke ukuba zifake kulawulo lwenkqubo zokukhusela uwonke wonke, uqeqesho lwamapolisa, kunye nolawulo lwenkundla.

Izindlu zowiso-mthetho zelizwe kwafuneka zihlaziye imigaqo yazo yolwaphulo-mthetho ukuze zihambisane nemigangatho eyi-8h IsiHlaliso. Ukwalela nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga [ kusetyenziswe kumazwe ngokuququzelela, ukumisela ukusetyenziswa kakhulu kwamandla amapolisa, ukuthintela iimeko zokuvalelwa ezintolongweni, nokunqanda izigwebo ezithile zolutsha. Atkins v. Virginia [2002], iNkundla ibanjwe ukuba abantu ngabanye abasebenzisa ubulwelwe-luvenge obungalawulekiyo baso i-luvo olululweyo lungavisiwe umthetho ol'o-95].[FLT] V[FFFFFF][5] [200] [200], iNkugwetyelwa yimithetho ekwahlulwayo.

Ukufakwa kwe [[FLT: 0] Amazwe avumele amagosa omthetho ukuba athabathe impahla enxulumene nomsebenzi wolwaphulo-mthetho agcine iziphumo, nokuba umnini wempahla wabekwa ityala kusini na. I-Indiana ifuna ukuba kuguqulwe iinkqubo zemisebenzi ye-oktobha. Amazwe amaninzi avumele abameli bomthetho ukuba bafumane ipropati enxulumene nolwaphulo-mthetho, bagcine iziphumo, nokuba umnini wempahla ubekwe ityala. [[FLT:] Timbs[FLT:] [5] isigqibo senziwe ngokucacileyo ukuba ukulahlekelwa okunjalo akunakuba kumele kungabi nako ukukhutyelwa kwetyala, inkcaso sichaza ukuba bamkele imida entsha.

Iingxaki Zexesha Elidluleyo Nemibuzo Engaconjululwanga

Uhlaziyo Lwesibini Emva Komenzi Wobubi NoMcDonald

Ukuqukwa koMphetho wesibini ku McDonald v. IsiXeko saseChicago (2010) sibangele impikiswano ebalulekileyo kunye nemigaqo-nkqubo. Ama- States nemimandla kuye kwafuneka ukuba kulungiswe imithetho yokulawula imipu yawo ukuze ihambisane nelungelo elitsha lokugcina nokuthwala izixhobo ukuze uzenze uzenzele ngokwakhe. Oku kufuna ukuba kuthethelelwe imiqathango phantsi komgangatho ofanelekileyo wokwenza uphando lwesiseko.

Amanye amaphondo aye aphendula ngokuthi athathe imithetho engekho mthethweni, evumela abantu ukuba baphathe imipu ngaphandle kwephepha-mvume. Amanye aye agcina okanye omeleza iimfuno zawo eziyimfuneko, ephikisa ngokuthi le mithetho iyavumelana noMphetho wesibini njengoko ichazwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo. Isiphumo siso sisokubekwa kwemithetho yesizwe ebonisa umlinganiselo wokulungelelanisa kwemipu kunye nokhuseleko lukawonke wonke.

Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi yeNew York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen [2022]) yacacisa kwakhona imigangatho yokuvavanya uHlaziyo lwesibini loMphetho-Mpanziso. INkundla yabambelela kwimimiselo yemipu yangoku mayisoloko ihambelana nesithethe sembali solawulo lwemipu, ifuna ukuba kubekho uphengululo lwembali ukuthethelela imithetho yayo. Le sigqibo sityhidise urhulumente "mayela-ssue" ifihla imithetho kwaye ixhobisa imiqathango yemiqathango yesizwe, kuquka imiqathango yemi yemibutho ephezulu yemipu yomkhosi kunye nezixhobo zokuhlasela.

Ukuthetha Kakhululekileyo Kwixesha Eliqhelekileyo

Ukusetyenziswa kweSichibiyelo Sokuqala esikhululekileyo sokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo kwimithetho ye-intanethi yemithetho yentetho ye-intanethi kuye kwaba ngumba ophambili wexesha langoku. Amazwe aye amisela imithetho ejolise kwimigangatho yeze-intanethi, elungele ukuthomalalisa, kunye nokuhlukumeza kwi-intanethi. Le mithetho imele ihambisane nomthetho oqulunqwe noMthetho wokuqala wokuGqibela, osebenza kumgaqo wokuthetha kungakhathaliseki ukuba loo ntetho iyenzeka kwi-intanethi okanye ngaphandle kwe-intanethi.

Imithetho yezopolitiko efuna amaqonga athile ezezentlalo-ntle aphathe okuqulethwe yimeko ethile, okanye awathintele ekususeni okuqulethwe yimbono, iye yacetyiswa njengentetho enganyanzeliswanga. Imithetho yezopolitiko ephazamisa ukuhlaselwa kwekhompyutha okanye "i-cyberbulelria" kufuneka yenziwe ngocoselelo ukuze kuphetshwe ukugqithisa nokungacacanga. Ukuququkwa kwemigaqo yenkululeko yokuthetha kuthetha ukuba amagunya kufuneka ahlonele umahluko phakathi kokuthetha okukhuselwayo nokuthetha okungakhuselekanga, kwana nokusingqongileyo okujikeleza ngokukhawuleza okukwimeko yamanani.

Ukhuseleko lokuqala loMphetho-mda wokuthetha okungaziwayo lukwasetyenziswa nakumazwe ngokufakwa, kuthintelwe amandla karhulumente okufuna ukuchazwa kwabathethi be-intanethi. Imithetho karhulumente efuna abantu babhalise amagama abo okwenene phambi kokufaka amagqabaza kwii-website, okanye ukufuna iiwebhusayithi ukuqinisekisa ukuba abasebenzisi babo banelungelo lokuthetha ngokungaziwa.

Amalungelo Ayimfihlo Kwinkulungwane yama-20

Umlinganiselo wamalungelo obuqu akhuselwe yi-'Ad Process Claus' uyaqhubeka iguquka, kwaye ulawulo kufuneka lulungelelanise iinkqubo zalo ukuze ziwahlonele la malungelo. [[FLT: 0] nelungelo lokufumana ulwazi oluyimfihlo luye lwaqondwa zezinye iinkundla njengomdla wokhuseleko olungokomgaqo-siseko, ulinganisela amandla amazwe okuqokelela nokubelana ngolwazi lobuqu ngaphandle kobulungisa obaneleyo.

Imithetho yezorhulumente elawula ukuqokelelwa kogcino-lwazi lwebiometric, njengeminwe yoomatshini bokuchola iminwe kunye nokuvavanya ubuso, kufuneka zihambisane nokukhuselwa komGaqo-siseko. Imithetho karhulumente efuna ukutyhilwa kwenkcazelo yobuqu njengemeko yokwamkela iinzuzo zikarhulumente okanye iinkonzo kufuneka igwetyelwe ngenyameko. Ukuqukwa kwamalungelo obuqu kuthetha ukuba amagosa akakwazi ukusebenzisa amandla awo amapolisa ukungenelela kwimicimbi yobuqu ngaphandle kwenjongo esemthethweni karhulumente.

Ukhuseleko loMphetho-mva wesiHlazo se-Fourth ukuphengulula okungaqiqekiyo kunye nokuxhuzula , okuqukiweyo ngako Map v. Ohio, kusetyenziswe kubugcisa obutsha. [[FLT:]] Kumthetho womthetho olawulayo. UUnited States [2010]], iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo ye-cell rea imeechaza ukuphendla phantsi koMmiselo wesine, efuna isiqinisekiso. Esi sigqibo sinyanzelekile ukuba kuqinisekiswe ukunikezelwa kwemithetho yomthetho kugcino-lwazi lwenkcazelo, ukuquka ulwazi lombhalo, kunye nee-imeyili.

Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Kukho Kokuzikhethela

Ukukhetha okusisiseko kuguqule ulungelelwano lwamandla phakathi korhulumente worhulumente worhulumente kunye namazwe. Ibangele umgangatho wesizwe wezokhuselo zomGaqo-siseko wonke amazwe amele awuhlonele, eqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo asisiseko awaxhomekekanga kwingozi yendalo. Ummi waseTexas unelungelo elifanayo loMmiselo wokuqala njengommi waseMassachusetts, kwaye ummangalelwa wesigebenga e-Alabama unamalungelo afanayo eSithandathu soMgwebo-mva-mva eNew York.

Kwangaxeshanye, icandelo elikhethayo lokugcina igumbi lokulinga nokuhluka-hluka kwemeko. Ama-odolo angasamisela imithetho egqitha kumlinganiselo karhulumente, ekhusela amalungelo angaphezulu kakhulu kunaleyo ifunwa ngumGaqo-siseko. Bangawalawula kwakhona kwiindawo ezingagqunywanga yiBhili yamaLungelo, eziphantsi komnye umGaqo-siseko kuphela. Olu lungelelwano phakathi kobudlelane besizwe nolwahluka-hlukeneyo lwamazwe lungolunye lwempumelelo enkulu yolawulo lwamaMelika.

Imfundiso yokuqukumbela inxalenye ekhethekileyo ayimi ndawonye. INkundla Ephakamileyo iyaqhubeka iqwalasela ukuba ngawaphi amalungelo asisiseko nendlela amele asetyenziswe ngayo kumazwana. Izigqibo zexesha elizayo zingabandakanya amalungelo angakaqatshelwa, okanye zingacoca ukhuseleko olukhoyo ngokukhanyiselwa kobugcisa obutsha neemeko zentlalo. Okuhlala kusisicingisiso esisesona siphambili sokudibanisa okukhethiweyo: ukuba i-ST Procession Claus yeGrandmentation ye-145 Demplete ikhusela umgalelo wenkululeko esisiseko ekungekho mntu unokuyikhanyela.

Kubamisi-mthetho, abamisi-mthetho, nabemi, ukuqonda ukuququzelelwa okukhethiweyo kubalulekile. Ichaza isizathu sokuba amaphondo amele ayihlonele iBhili yamaLungelo, kwaye inika isiseko sokuvavanya ubume bemithetho yezorhulumente. Njengoko kuvela iingxaki ezintsha, ukusuka kubukrelekrele obungeyonto ukuya kwintsabelo engcungcuthekisayo, imfundiso yokudibanisa okukhethiweyo iza kuqhubeka ibumba ulwalamano phakathi kwamandla karhulumente nenkululeko yomntu ngamnye, iqinisekisa ukuba ukhuseleko lomGaqo-siseko luhlala lunentsingiselo kulo lonke ilizwe nakumntu ngamnye.