Isebe eligwebayo limi njengentsika yolawulo-demokhrasi, lisebenza ngokutolika imithetho, ukucombulula iimbambano, nokukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye. Ngaphandle kwenkqubo yenkundla esesikweni nezimeleyo, umthetho awunakusebenza, kwaye abemi baphulukana nenkqubo yabo ephambili yokubamba urhulumente kunye nabadlali bobuqu baphendule. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa indlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo kwisiseko esisemthethweni, imisebenzi ebalulekileyo abayenzayo, ukubaluleka kokuzimela geqe, kunye nocelomngeni olusongela ukuphumelela kwabo kwixesha langoku.

Izakhiwo Ezingabaphathi - ntsapho

Inkoliso yeenkqubo zomthetho ziququzelela iinkundla kwiqela labefundisi, nomgaqo ngamnye ofeza injongo eyahlukileyo. Esi sakhiwo siqinisekisa ukuba amatyala afumana uhlolo olucokisekileyo kwaye iimpazamo zingalungiswa kwisibheno. Ukuqonda izintlu zezigwebi kunceda kucace indlela okusesikweni okulandelwa ngayo ukusuka kwiseko sokuqala ukuya kwisimo sokugqibela.

Iinkundla Zokuchophela Ityala

Iinkundla zetyala zingunobangela wokungena kuzo zonke iimpikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni. Apha, abagwebi okanye abagwebi bavavanya ubungqina, baphulaphule ubungqina, baze basebenzise umthetho kwiimeko zetyala. Kwimicimbi yolwaphulo-mthetho, iinkundla zamatyala zigqiba ukuba zimsulwa okanye zimsulwa; ekumangalelweni ngokwezemiba yoluntu, zigqiba iityala kunye nomonakalo. Ngenxa yokuba iinkundla ezigwebayo zisingatha umsebenzi omninzi womgwebo, ukuphumelela kwazo nokungakhethi cala kwazo kuchaphazela intembelo yabantu. Amagunya amaninzi ahlula amatyala ngokweenkundla zamatyala ngokwezaphuli-mthetho (* njengezaphuli-mthetho, intsapho, iprote-mthetho, kwaye i-prote-stionsssss projectivessss. U. U.

Inkundla

Iinkundla zetyala aziphindi zihlole amatyala aphindiweyo. Endaweni yoko, bahlola ingxelo evela kwinkundla egwebayo ukuze bafumanise ukuba iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni zenzekile na ezinokuthi zachaphazele iziphumo. Izibheno zijolise kwimibuzo yomthetho . "njengemiyalelo yabachopheli-mthetho engachananga" njengemiyalelo echanekileyo, ukuvunywa kobungqina obungafanelekanga, okanye ukuchazwa kakubi komthetho okhoyo. Iqela labagwebi (ngokuqhelekileyo babe bathathu) lihlola iingxoxo ezifutshane lize live iingxoxo zomlomo ngaphambi kokuba likhuphe uluvo olubhaliweyo. Ukuba inkundla yenkundla elawulayo ifumana impazamo engenakuphenduliswa, ingayalelananza ityala entsha, okanye iguqule esohlwayo ngokupheleleyo. Iinkundla ze-intermediastellate zikho kumazwe amaninzi ukukhulula uxinzelelo kwinkundla ephakamileyo, ukukhulula iimeko ezingaphakathwa ngokomthetho.

Inkundla ePhakamileyo

Inkundla ephakamileyo (okanye inkundla engomgaqo-siseko) ihleli kwinqanaba eliphezulu lejaji. Indima yayo ephambili kukusombulula iinkundla ezincinci nokunika iinkcazelo eziqinisekileyo zomgaqo-siseko nemithetho esisiseko. Ngokuqhelekileyo, inkundla ephakamileyo ikhetha amatyala okuwava, ibhekisa kwezo zibandakanya imibuzo yezomGaqo-siseko, izigqibo zesiphaluka ezingqubanayo, okanye iimbambano zokubaluleka kwesizwe. Izigqibo zayo ziba ngumgqaliselo onyathelayo kuzo zonke iinkundla ezisezantsi. [FLT:]

Iinkundla ezizodwa

Ngenxa yokuntsonkotha okukhulayo kwebutho labantu lanamhlanje, iinkqubo ezininzi zomthetho ziye zamisela iinkundla ezikhethekileyo zokusingatha iinkundla ezithile zamatyala. Ezi ziquka iinkundla zerhafu, iinkundla zokuwiswa kwamalungelo emali, iinkundla zolutsha, iinkundla zeziyobisi, kunye neenkundla zempahla zenkcubeko. Iinkundla ezikhethekileyo zisoloko zisebenza ngeenkqubo ezilandelelanayo kunye neejaji ezinobuchule obunzulu kumbandela. Iinkundla zeziyobisi, umzekelo, zidibanisa ulawulo lokwalathisa kwiinkqubo zonyango kunye neenkqubo zonyango zokusingatha amatyala anxulumene nokukhotyo, ukucutha ukuphelisa ukusetyenziswa kweziyobisi nokukhulula umthwalo kwii-chweba eziqhelekileyo. Iinkundla zentsapho zizimisele ukusombulula ityala, uqhawulo-galelo, uqhawulo-mtshato, kunye nokukhusela abantwana kwimicimbi engekhoyo kwimibandela ephambili, ngaphambi kokuba abantwana benziwe.

Comment

Iinkundla zisenza imisebenzi emininzi enxulumeneyo efunekayo kwibutho elisesikweni nelilungeleleneyo.

Isisombululo seNkqutyana yeNkcaso

Owona msebenzi ubonakalayo weenkundla kukunikezela ngendlela esesikweni yokucombulula iimpikiswano. Xa amaqela engenako ukucombulula ukungavisisani ngengxoxo okanye ngesigqibo esichaseneyo, aphethulela kwiinkundla ukuze kugqitywe isigqibo esisinyanzelisayo. Le nkqubo ithumela iziqhagamshelanisi zingquzulana zibe yindawo elungelelanisiweyo, indawo engqongileyo egqunywe ngumthetho, inciphisa amathuba okubekwa komthetho okanye iingxabano ezingapheliyo. Ukumangalelwa kwamakhaya ngezivumelwano, impahla, umonakalo wobuqu, kunye nomsebenzi wokusebenza konke kuxhomekeke kwiinkundla ukusebenzisa umthetho ngokufanelekileyo. Kwanakwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, urhulumente usebenza njengeqela elifuna ukunyanzelela imigaqo yeso sociota, kwaye inkundla igqiba enoba ngaba ityholo luchasile ezo zithethe. Ngokudlulisela iziphumo ezithe rhoqo, iinkundla ziqinisekisa umgaqo wokuba akukho namnye umntu ongaphezulu komthetho.

Ukutolika kunye nokuQala

Abagwebi kufuneka bachaze imimiselo, imimiselo, kunye namalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko xa bewasebenzisa kwizibakala ezithile. Lo msebenzi wokutolika asingowokwenza nje uphandle; usoloko ufuna ukucacisa ulwimi oludidayo, ukudibanisa imithetho engqubanayo, kunye nokutshintsha imithetho emidala kwiimeko ezintsha. Ngemfundiso ye istare decisis[ [iiiiinkundla] (ime ngokwemiba yesigqibo), iinkundla zakha isiqu esikhokela iimeko zexesha elizayo. Ukuchazwa kwasemthethweni kuvumela abantu kunye namashishini ukuba bacebise imicimbi yabo ngokuqiniseka okusengqiqweni. Xa inkundla ephezulu ichaza, iinkundla ezisezantsi, maziyilandele, iqulule umthetho othe ngqo. U. U.S. Umzekelo, utoliko oluphezulu lwe-Classimsmeedia [Flate] [2][3]

Ukukhuselwa Kwamalungelo Omntu Ngamnye

Iinkundla zisebenza njengabameli bamalungelo omgaqo-siseko kunye nemigaqo-siseko. Abantu ngabanye bangacel ’ umngeni izenzo zikarhulumente eziphazamisa inkululeko yabo yokuthetha, inkululeko yonqulo, inkqubo efanelekileyo, okanye ukhuseleko olulinganayo . ngokuzisa amatyala phambi kojaji. Oku kuhlola amandla olawulo oluphezulu nolwamagunya eenkqubo zolawulo-mthetho. Iinkundla zikwanyanzelisa namalungelo abantu athintela ucalucalulo emsebenzini, emakhaya, kwimfundo, nakwiindawo zokuhlala zikawonke wonke. EUnited States, i-Classivery Estemment Claus [ ifuna iinkqubo ezisesikweni phambi kokuba urhulumente ahluze umntu othile, inkululeko, okanye impahla. Ngaphandle kokulawula okuqinileyo, ukukhusela, ezi ndawo, imfundo, kunye neendawo zikawonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke.

Impinda yezeejaji

Kumazwe amaninzi, iinkundla zinegunya lokuhlola izenzo zomthetho nezolawulo oluphezulu zokuthobela umgaqo-siseko. Eli gunya, elaziwa njengohlolo lwezomthetho, livumela inkundla ukuba ibethe imithetho echasene namalungelo asisiseko okanye igqithe imida karhulumente. Ityala lenkcazo yecala le buryrybry v. Madison [18] [03]) imisele uhlolo lwezomthetho kumgangatho wesizwe eUnited States. Ukususela ngoko, iinkundla zomhlaba wonke ziye zasebenzisa eli gunya ukukhusela amalungelo amancinane, ukunyanzelisa ukwahlukana, nokugcina umthetho. Ikomiti ihlola amanye amasebe agcinwe ngaphakathi kwimidabangomgaqonga yemithetho, iwenza imbombo ye-olawulo lwale mihla.

Inkululeko Yejaji Nenkuselo Yayo

Ukuze iinkundla ziphumeze imisebenzi yazo ngokungakhethi buso, kufuneka zizimele kwiingcinezelo zobupolitika, kwiingxaki zemali, nakwiimbono zikawonke-wonke. Ukuzimela geqe akulolungelo kubagwebi kodwa kukuqinisekisa ukuba amatyala abo aza kugqityelwa ukugwetywa.

Ukhuseleko lomGaqo-siseko

Umgaqo-siseko wedemokhrasi omninzi ukhusela ngokuphandle ukuzimela ngokwaselugwebeni. Amalungiselelo aqhelekileyo aquka imivuzo emiselweyo engenakuncitshiswa ngexesha lokumiswa kwejaji, ukhuseleko lokumiswa (ngokufuthi de kube lixesha lokusebenza njengomhlala phantsi okanye ngexesha lokuziphatha okuhle), kunye nokungathintelwa kokususwa kwabagwebi ngaphandle kwehambo engafanelekanga enzulu. Le migaqo-mthetho ikhusela abagwebi ekuziphindezeleni ngabalawuli abalawuli abaphetheyo okanye abalawuli abaphetheyo. Ngokomzekelo, iGatya III le-U.S. lomGaqo-siseko unika abagwebi bolawulo lwexesha lonke kwaye uthintela umvuzo womvuzo ophantsi komhlala-mali, uqinisekisa ukuba bangawuphumeli ngaphandle koloyiko lwezikhuphiwo okanye ingeniso yabo.

Ukukhetha nokuzimela

Indlela abagwebi abakhethwa ngayo ngokungqalileyo bachaphazela inkululeko yabo. Ngelixesha amanye amazwe esebenzisa unyulo oluthandwayo, iingcali ezininzi ezingokwasemthethweni ziphikisa ngelithi ukutyunjwa ngoothunywashe abangoondilele okanye ukudityaniswa kwemvume yabalawuli abaphetheyo kunye nemithetho yezomthetho kuvelisa abagwebi abangakhethi buso. Iinkqubo zokukhetha ezisekelwe kumaMerit zivavanya abaza kufikelela kwiimfaneleko, amava, kunye nemilinganiselo yokuziphatha kunokuba kunxulumane nezobupolitika. Imithetho ebanzi okanye engobomi babo ibonke ikhusela abagwebi kwiingcinezelo eziqhelekileyo, ukuba bamisele umthetho kumgangatho ophezulu kusasazwa abantu abaqeqeshiweyo. Kodwa, kungenxa yoko, ingulowo umlinganiselo wokuzinyuso lweminyaka okanye wokuthatha umhlala.

I-Autonomy yohlahlo-lwabiwo-mali

Iinkundla zifuna inkxaso eyaneleyo ukuze zisebenze ngokunempumelelo. Xa isebe eliphethe okanye indlu yowiso-mthetho ilawula uqingqo-mali lwejaji, kukho ubungozi bokuba ukugawulwa kwemali kungasetyenziswa ukuphembelela izigqibo zomthetho okanye ukohlwaya imithetho engathandwayo. Amazwe amaninzi aye ashukumela ukwenza isebe lejaji elizimeleyo nemali elinikwe lona, elikhuselwe ekuncitshisweni ngokweenjongo. Umzekelo, iNhlangano wezizwe ngezizwe ye-Intevision ne-Paint igxininisa ukuba i-democracy yemali lilungu elibalulekileyo lelungu elizimeleyo lomthetho. Ngaphandle koko, iinkundla zinokunyanzelwa ukuba zihlawule ngokucosekileyo.

Iingxaki Ezijamelene Neenkundla

Phezu kwayo nje indima yazo ebalulekileyo, iinkundla ehlabathini lonke zijamelene nemiqobo ebalulekileyo enokuphelisa ukuphumelela nokuthenjwa nguwonke-wonke. Ukusingatha ezi ngxaki kufuna utshintsho lwenkqubo nokuthanda okuqhubekayo kwezobupolitika.

Imithetho Yasemva Nexesha Lokulibazisa

Ukuthwalwa kwetyala elinzima kugqugqise iinkqubo zenkundla ezininzi, ezikhokelela ekulibaziseni iminyaka phakathi kokugcinwa kwetyala kunye nesigqibo. Kwimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, ukuvalelwa kwangaphambili kunganwebeka iinyanga okanye kwaneminyaka, ukulwa nelungelo lokuvavanywa ngokukhawuleza nokucinezela abamangalelwa ukuba bamangalelwe bavume ityala nakanjanina. Iinkundla ezithile zisenokuyeka ukuthetha izinto ezisemthethweni kuba zixanduva naxa ixesha lokubekwa isinduluko lidlula nakuphi na ukuphucula okunokwenzeka. Ukuvalelwa kwetyala kusuka ekunganelangani kwabasebenzi betyala, ekungathwali kakuhle, nasekunyuseni kwemiqulu yetyala. Ezinye iinkundla ziye zasebenzisa izisombululo zobugcisa ukuze zifake izisombululo zezobugcisa.

Ukufikelela Kwimiqobo Yokusesikweni

Kubantu abaninzi, ingakumbi abo banemiqathango elinganiselweyo yemali, inkqubo yenkundla ayifikeleli. Indleko ephezulu yomelo olusemthethweni, imigaqo entsonkothileyo, kunye nemiqobo yolwimi idala umsantsa wenkundla. E-United States, uphando lubonisa ukuba abantu abafumana ingeniso ephantsi bafumana iziphumo ezingafanelekanga okanye abanalo uncedo olusemthethweni kwinkoliso yeengxaki zomthetho, kuquka ukugxothwa, ugonyamelo lwasekhaya, kunye nokuqokelelwa kwamatyala. Abameli abafumana iinkonzo ezifanelekileyo (iprograc) bazama ukuqhuba iinkqubo zenkundla, ukuvelisa iziphumo ezingekho mgangathweni kunye nokucinezelela oovimba benkundla. Izicombululo ziquka ukuxhaswa ngokusemthethweni, iindlela kunye neenkqubo zoncedo ezisemthethweni, ubuchule, ubuchule, ubuchule, ubuchule, ubuchule bokuzinceda, kunye noomatila-omatiloshe abanyukileyo benkundla benkundla. Ezinye izizwe ziye zamkela “iiiphepha elisekunene ukuya kwimithetho”, ukuqinisekisa iimeko ezithile zemali zemali, ii-gqwebombo zabantwana okanye ukuva.

Izilondolozi Zikavimba

Iinkundla zisebenza rhoqo ngobugcisa obuphelelwe lixesha, ukhuseleko olungaphelelanga, kunye nabasebenzi abanganele. Abasebenzi, oomabhalane, abatoliki, kunye namagosa okuvavanya asoloko ebhityekile, echaphazela lonke icandelo lenkqubo yokugweba. Kumazwe amaninzi asakhasayo, izakhiwo azinazo iimeko ezisisiseko, kwaye iimali zokuhlawula ityala ziphantsi kakhulu ukuba zingatsala kwaye zigcine abagwebi abafanelekayo. Imiqathango yezolwazi ikwathintela amandla okuzalisekisa iinkqubo ezikhethekileyo, njengeenkundla zeziyobisi okanye iinkundla zempilo yengqondo, ezinokunciphisa ukusetyenziswa kwakhona kwe-dicticiod nedilesi phantsi kwezizathu ezisisiseko zongquzulwano. Imali evela kurhulumente ibalulekile, kodwa iinkundla zikwafuna ubuchule bokuveza ulawulo ngempumelelo.

Ukuthenjwa Nguwonke Wonke Nokuthenjwa

Umthetho uyimali yejaji. Ukuba iinkundla zikawonke-wonke zikholelwa ukuba iinkundla zikhohlakele, zinobuqhetseba, okanye ziphenjelelwe kwezobupolitika, abantu baya kuphelelwa lukholo kwinkqubo yokusesikweni. Amatyala aphezulu abandakanya izityholo zokungalungi, ukulawula ngokutshayelela, okanye ubuchule obungaqwalaselwanga anokukonakalisa ukuthembana. Izentlalo-ntle kunye nemijikelo yama-24 yeyure epheleleyo yokuhlalutya okubonisa ingxengxengxenge-ca, maxa wambi ngokungekho sikweni. Iinkundla zinokusabela ngokwanda kokubonakala ngaphaya kwemiqathango, ukusetyenziswa kwemiba, nokubandakanye nemicimbi yasekuhlaleni ngenkqubo yokurhoxakeka. Iikomiti zemithetho zolawulo kunye noncedo lweziquluko lugcina uxanduva. Noko ke, ukuphinda-guqulo luyinkqubo oluthatha ixesha nto leyo efuna ukubonakaliswa ngokuqhubekayo kokungakhethi kungabikho kwekhethe nokusebenza kweminyaka emininzi.

Indima Yeenkundla Kuluntu Olulawulwa Yidemokhrasi

Ngaphandle kokucombulula amatyala ngamanye, iinkundla zinendima ephambili ekulondolozeni impilo yamaziko edemokhrasi.

Iipeksi Nolungelelwano

Kwinkqubo yamagunya ahlukeneyo, iinkundla zinikela uhlolo kumasebe alawulayo nawamagunya owiso-mthetho. Xa imithetho okanye izenzo zolawulo zigqitha imiqathango yomgaqo-siseko, iinkundla zingayivakalisa ingento. Eli gunya lithintela naliphi na isebe elinye ukuba lifumane igunya elininzi. Umzekelo, iinkundla ziye zawisa imithetho ethintela ukuthethwa ngokukhululekileyo, ukucinezela amalungelo okuvota, okanye amaqela angathotyelwanga. Ngoxa uhlolo lwezomthetho ludla ngokuphikisana, ingakumbi xa luwisa umthetho oqhelekileyo, luyinkuselo oluyimfuneko ekunqandeni ulawulo lwabaninzi.

Utshintsho Namalungelo Abantu

Iinkundla ziye zasebenzisa intsebenziswano eqhubekisela phambili ubulungisa bentlalo, ingakumbi xa amaqumrhu owiso-mthetho engazimisele okanye engakwazi ukuthatha inyathelo. Izigwebo zelizwe ezilawula ucalucalulo lohlanga, ukulingana komtshato, amalungelo okuzalana, kunye nokulungisa isigwebo solwaphulo-mthetho zibonisa indlela iinkundla ezinako ukwandisa ngayo ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko. Ezi zigqibo zidla ngokukhokelela ekuchaseni uwiso-mthetho okanye ekulungiseni komgaqo-siseko, kodwa zikwanyanzelela ibutho labantu ukuba lijamelane nokungekho sikweni kwenkqubo. Nangona iinkundla azifanele zijongwe njengenjini ephambili yotshintsho lwentlalo-ntlalo-ntle. [$2] [5] Icandelo le-jajidicatary linika ukukhuselwa phambili kwemithetho yemithetho yemithetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko somthetho-mthetho-siseko somthetho-mthetho-siseko somthetho-siseko somthetho, kodwa kwakhona i-odvoluption. [Fctric:0]

Isiphelo

Inkqubo yokugweba ingumsebenzi onzima nonamandla obeke iliso kwisiseko somthetho. Ukusuka kwiinkundla zamatyala ezisingatha iimbambano zemihla ngemihla kwiinkundla eziphakamileyo ezimisela imida ephakamileyo, umgangatho ngamnye wejaji unegalelo kwisiseko esilungelelanisiweyo sokusesikweni. Iinkundla zicombulula iingxabano, zichaza imithetho, zikhusela amalungelo abantu, kwaye zigcine urhulumente enetyala. Ukuzimela kwazo kubalulekile ekwenzeni izigqibo ezifanelekileyo, kodwa kufuneka ziqhubeke zikhuselwa kwiingcinezelo zezobupolitika nezemali. Kwangalo xesha, iinkundla zijamelene neengxaki ezicinezelayo, imiqobo, ukunqongophala, ukufikelela koovimba, nokuthoba ukuthengwa kwemali, nokuthomalalisa ukuthengwa kolawulo lukawonke wonke.

Ikomiti yezomthetho esebenzayo ayisisiqinisekiso sokusesikweni, kodwa yeyona nkqubo yedemokhrasi ingcono iye yaveliswa ukuze ifikelele. Abami abayiqonda kakuhle indlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo baxhotyiselwe ngayo ukuba babe nenxaxheba kwinkqubo engokwasemthethweni, baxhase ukuphuculwa, baze bagcine iinkqubo zabo zokusesikweni zinokuphendula. Njengoko iinkqubo ezingokwasemthethweni ziguquka ukuze zihlangabezane neenyaniso ezintsha zezobugcisa nezentlalo, injongo esisiseko yeenkundla ayitshintshanga: ukuhlangula okusesikweni, elinye icala ngexesha.