Iinkundla zikarhulumente zaseUnited States zinesikhundla esinamandla ngokungaqhelekanga kwisakhiwo solawulo lwesizwe. Ngegunya lazo lokutolika umGaqo-siseko kunye nemithetho karhulumente, zisoloko zibumba (/kanye zilungisa) kwaye ngamanye amaxesha imigaqo-nkqubo yasekuhlaleni inqumla uludwe olubanzi lwemibandela. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa iindlela ezisetyenziswayo zokuphembelela urhulumente kunye nokulawula kwelizwe, ukusuka kwingqwalasela yezomthetho kunye nesigqibo sokuphikisana kumthetho wamalungelo omntu ngamnye. Ukuqonda ezi mpembelelo ziyimfuneko kuye nabani na ofuna ukuqonda indlela umthetho nemigaqo ehamba ngayo kwinkqubo yorhulumente.

Ukuqonda Inkqubo Yenkundla Yomanyano

Ijaji yesizwe imiselwe liGatya III lomGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. kwaye lisebenza ecaleni kweenkqubo zenkundla yeli lizwe.

  • IINkundla zeSithili zase-U.S.: Iinkundla zamatyala apho amatyala karhulumente aqala khona. Kukho isithili ezingama-94 kulo lonke ilizwe, ngasinye sisingatha imicimbi yamakhaya neyolwaphulo-mthetho equkuqela phantsi komthetho worhulumente.
  • U.S. iiNkundla zezibheno (IiNkundla Zesiphaluka): zahlulelene kwimimandla eyi-13, ezi nkosazo zihlola izigqibo ezivela kwiinkundla zesithili kulawulo lwazo lwezwe. Ngokufuthi zilelona lithetha isiphelo kwizibheno ezininzi zikarhulumente, njengoko iNkundla ePhakamileyo ithetha icandelo elincinane lamatyala.
  • Inkundla yetyala lokugqibela. Igunya likarhulumente kuninzi lwezicelo kwaye imithetho yayo ibophelele kuzo zonke iinkundla zorhulumente ezisezantsi.

Iinkundla zomanyano zisebenzisa igunya kumatyala abandakanya umthetho wesizwe, umGaqo-siseko, iimbambano phakathi kwamazwe, kunye namatyala apho iUnited States ililungu. Oku kunika igunya elingqalileyo kwimicimbi esoloko idityaniswa norhulumente kunye nenkqubo yasekuhlaleni.

Imisebenzi Engundoqo Ephembelela Inkqubo Ye-drive

Ukubumba urhulumente neenkundla zomanyano kunye nemigaqo-nkqubo yasekuhlaleni kwimisebenzi emithathu engundoqo: uhlolo lwezahlulelo, isigqibo sempikiswano phakathi korhulumente, kunye nokukhuselwa kwamalungelo omntu ngamnye. Umsebenzi ngamnye unentsingiselo ebalulekileyo ngendlela amazwe nemimandla elawula ngayo.

Impinda yezeejaji

Amandla okuhlola okugweba, ``igunya lokuwisa imithetho echasene nomGaqo-siseko'''. Mathbury v. Madison (1803). Ukususela ngoko, iinkundla zesebe ziye zasebenzisa eli gunya ukuphelisa ubuninzi borhulumente nemithetho yasekuhlaleni. Ngohlalutyo lwezomthetho, iinkundla ziqinisekisa ukuba izenzo zikarhulumente zihambelana nomGaqo-siseko, imimiselo yorhulumente, kunye nezivumelwano.

  • Imithetho yelizwe engqubana namandla orhwebo (umz., Gibbons v. Ogden, 1824]).
  • Imimiselo karhulumente engqubana nenkululeko yokuHlaziya koQala (umz., ISicelo seManyano .FEC, 2010, nangona loo meko inxulumene nomthetho karhulumente; imithetho yezemali yephondo iyacelw'ilwa rhoqo).
  • Izenzo zemeko ezichasene noKhuselo olulinganayo okanye iNkqubo elindelekileyo ka-Claus (umz. [[FLT: 0]] Ukuphuma v. Virginia, 1967, eyaphelisa ukuvalwa komtshato wezizwe ngezizwe).

Ukuhlaziywa kwemithetho akuphelelanga ekubetheleleni imithetho; iinkundla zikwaxhasa imithetho karhulumente xa ziphumeza uquluno lomgaqo-siseko. Oku kuqinisekisiwe kokugunyaziswa korhulumente kwaye kunika intsingiselo ekuqulunqweni kwemithetho kwixesha elizayo.

Ukusombulula Iingxabano Zoburhulumente

Iinkundla zomanyano zisebenza njengemiqobo engoondilele kwiimbambano phakathi kwamazwana okanye phakathi korhulumente norhulumente wesizwe. Phantsi kweGatya III, iNkundla ePhakamileyo inegunya lokuqala kumatyala phakathi kwamazwe, kodwa iinkundla ezisezantsi zephondo zisoloko ziva iimpikiswano ezinxulumeneyo. Imizekelo iquka:

  • Iimpikiswano zamalungelo amanzi phakathi koorhulumente (umz. [[FLT: 0] TEXS v. New Mexico, iqhubekeka ku Rio Grande).
  • Kukho iingxaki kumthetho othi kuthwaliswe umthwalo kushishino lwamazwe ngamazwe, njengemithetho karhulumente yokulahla iilori okanye inkunkuma.
  • Ingxabano emalunga nokutshayelwa komthetho karhulumente ngemithetho karhulumente, enjengemithetho yokunyanzeliswa kwabantu abafudukayo karhulumente ekhutshelwe ngumthetho wengingqi (umz., [[FLT: 0]]Arizona v. United States, 2012).

Le mithetho inyanzela okanye yandise iindlela ezithile zokwenza urhulumente noorhulumente basekuhlaleni, ngokufuthi ezifuna ukuba bafake umgaqo okanye bashiye iindlela ezithile zokulawula.

Ukukhusela Amalungelo Omntu Ngamnye

Iinkundla zomanyano ziyinkundla ephambili yokunyanzelisa amalungelo omgaqo-siseko nxamnye nesenzo sikarhulumente norhulumente wasekuhlaleni. IBhili yamaLungelo ekuqaleni yayisebenza kurhulumente wesizwe kuphela, kodwa ngokubandakanya imfundiso yoMphetho-mda weshumi elinesine, eyona nto ingundoqo isebenza kumazwe. Imimandla engundoqo iquka:

  • [[NTL:0] Iprojekthi engundoqo: Eyesine, eyesihlanu, eyesiThathu, neyesibhozo Isinyusi, njengedibene, ifuna ukugcinwa komthetho nomthetho wasekuhlaleni ukuba ulandele imithetho engqongqo enxulumene nokuphengulula, ukuncinwa, kunye nokuvavanywa. Iimeko zophawu olufana no imanda v. Arizona [196] kunye .[OOOFLT:][5]]
  • [[FLT: 0] Intetho neNdibano ezikhululekileyo: Iinkundla zisoloko zihlola urhulumente kunye nemithetho yasekuhlaleni ekuvukeleni, kwimali yephulo, kunye nokuzichaza kukawonke-wonke. Cohen v. California[ (1971] kunye [[FLT]SM] . helps[[ [2010]
  • [[FLT: 0] I-Equal Protection: I-Ligate phantsi koMphetho-mva weshumi elinesine wesiHlaliso iqhube iinguqu kwimfundo, indlu, umsebenzi, kunye nokuvota. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[ [1954]] ihlala ingumzekelo womfanekiso, kodwa imigaqo elandelayo inyuse ikhuselekile kwi-LBTQ, abantu ngabanye, nabakhubazekile, nabanye.

Iinkundla zoManyano zikwanyanzelisa imithetho engokwasemthethweni yamalungelo abantu, njengeSiHloko VI soMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1964, iSihlomelo se-IX soLawulo lwemfundo lowe-1972, kunye namaMerika anikwe umthetho weNkxalabo. Le mimiselo inika abantu ilungelo lokumangalela amaphondo neendawo ezifuna imigaqo-mthetho yolwaphulo-mthetho.

Impembelelo kummandla wenkqubo ekhethekileyo

Kukho imiqathango emininzi ephantsi apho izigwebo zomthetho ziye zaba neziphumo ezinamandla ngokukhethekileyo.

Imfundo

Iinkundla zomanyano ziye zaba ngowona mthombo wokubumba inkqubo yemfundo kawonke-wonke. Emva Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[, iinkundla zalawula imiyalelo yokususa izithuba eyayifuna iinkqubo zesikolo kubafundi abaduladula, ukutsalela kwakhona iindawo zokungena, kunye nokuzalisekisa iinkqubo zomtsalane. Kamva izigqibo ezibhekiswe:

  • Iqela elinengxaki: iBoard of Education v. Rowley (19982)] kunye noo-onkfons abanengxaki yoMthetho wemfundo (IDEA) bafuna iimeko zokunikezela ngemfundo kawonke-wonke efunekayo kubantwana abaneziphene. Iinkundla zomanyano zinyanzelisa ezi miyalelo.
  • [[FLT: 0] Inkxaso-mali epheleleyo: Ngelixesha iNkundla ePhakamileyo yala ukufumana ilungelo lesizwe lokulingana nenkxaso yemali yesikolo San Antonio Independent School School v. Rodriguez [1903], inkundla yephondo iphendulwe phantsi komgaqo-siseko wesizwe. Noko ke, iinkundla zolawulo zisaluva ucelomngeni lokuxhasa imigaqo-nkqubo phantsi kwemithetho yamalungelo abantu.
  • Uthetha nokuqeqesha: . .Des Moines Independent School District [1969]] ivumile ukuba abafundi abawaniki amalungelo abo okuQala uMmiselo weSigqibo kwisango lesikolo. Ngokulandelayo imithetho iphucule imida yolwimi lwabafundi, kuquka ukuphuma kwi-intanethi yolu hlobo lokuchaza.
  • ITitle IX: Iinkundla zoMasipala zitolike isiHloko se-IX ukucela izikolo ukusingatha ukukhathazwa ngokwesini nokuhlaselwa, njengaku Davis v. Ibhodi yeSikolo semfundo (1999) kunye [FLT] ne-GEBS] v. Lagosta Independent School Dis[FLT:]. [[FLT:]] [1998] Izigqibo ezizi zinyanzelo zinyanzelela imicimbi ethile yesikolo ukuba isebenzise iinkqubo zezikhalazo ezithile.

Impilo

UMthetho we-Affordcules Care (ACA) wavelisa igalelo lolwandiso lwentengo oluchaphazele ngqo inkqubo yonyango lwezorhulumente. National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius] (2012], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa ugunyaziso lomntu ngamnye njengerhafu kodwa yenza ulwandiso lwe-ACAId lungacetyo ngokwasemthethweni lwamacala ukuba urhulumente akakwazi ukuntsalela zonke iimali ezikhoyo ze-Medicaid kumazwe angadiyo. Esi sigqibo sakhokelela ekunikezelweni kwemiqathango yezahluleko kwizigqibo zolwano. Kamva, uKing.[FFLD [FFFF:]] [2011]]) u-2010] uqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente akakwazi ukusetyenziswa koongeniswa kooomantwongezo, iintente ezithetho zamazwe azizi.

Iinkundla zomanyano ziphinde zahlola imithetho yemeko yokuqhomfa, kuquka amaxesha okulinda, imimiselo yekliniki, nemiqathango yemali. Kwi-Women’s Health v. Hellerst (206), iNkundla yayibetha iTexas imiqathango ethintelayo yokuqhomfa njengomthwalo ongafanelekanga phantsi [. Casey[[FLT]] [[FLT]] [1992]. [[FLT:]] [FLT]] [FLT] [FF:]] [4] [iiiiiiiiinkcukacha zokubuyisela isisu, iKnognografu]. [iiindlela yokukhupha isisuso somciso-mvo]

Amalungelo asekuhlaleni

Iinkundla zomanyano ziye zancedisa ekuhambiseleni phambili amalungelo abantu ngamatyala okuvota, ucalucalulo, kunye nezenzo zamapolisa. UMthetho wamaLungelo ka-65 (VRA) uye waba ngumbandela osoloko ubekwa iliso. Kumthetho weSizwe] Shelby v. UHorer [2013], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yasiphula inkqubo yokuchola, ngokunempumelelo ikhulula amazwe amaninzi kwimfuneko yokufumana imvume karhulumente yokutshintsha imithetho yevota. Ukususela ngoko, iinkundla zephondo ziye zahlaziya imithetho emitsha ye-ontathetho, umphelo, kunye nokukhunjululwa kwemivoti phantsi kwecandelo 2 leVRA.

Kummandla wamapolisa nowezolwaphulo-mthetho, iinkundla zelifa lesizwe noorhulumente basekuhlaleni bagwetyelwe izenzo ezingavumelaniyo. Umzekelo, Monell v. ISebe leeNkonzo zoNtlalo-ntle [1988]) limisele ukuba oomasipala banokumangalelwa phantsi kweCandelo 1983 ngokwemigaqo-siseko ebangela ukwaphulwa komgaqo-siseko. Iinkundla zikwangene imithetho efuna amaziko amapolisa ukuzalisekisa utshintsho, njengaseGenesof, eMissouri, naseBaltimoreland, Maryland.

LGBTQ+ amalungelo akhiwe ngokuphawulekayo zisigqibo senkundla yesizwe. Obergefell v. Hodges (2015, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele kwelokuba izibini ezingokwakwasemgangeni-manani zinelungelo elifanayo lokutshata, ukuvalwa komthetho-mthetho okungagunyaziswanga. Bostock v. Clayton County [2020]]) Isihlomelo socalulo esisekelwe kwimbonakalo yesini neempawu zesini esifana nesobufana, ichaphazela urhulumente kunye nemigaqo yemisebenzi yasekuhlaleni. Le mimiselo inyanzelelwa ukuba inike imvume yomtshato kunye nokuhlalisa abantu ngabanye imisebenzi, indawo yempilo, kunye nokuzibondla.

Umgaqo-nkqubo wokusingqongileyo

Iinkundla zomanyano zisoloko zigqiba umlinganiselo wesizwe kunye negunya lengingqi. Umthetho we-Eatmor kunye noMthetho we-Cec Water Litigation usoloko ufika kwiinkundla, apho abagwebi bachaza ukuba imilinganiselo karhulumente imele imisele imithetho karhulumente etshayelelweyo okanye ukuba amaziko angayamkela imithetho engqongqo. Amasachusetts v. EPA [2007] [iNT], iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele kwelokuba i-EPA mayilawule igesi eshushu phantsi kwe-oktroviko yemozulu, isigqibo esichaphazela imoyezomoya yemo-zulu. Ngokuphikisanayo, West Virginia v. EPA[FLT][FLT3][2]2]22222] (202]]) yahlula igunya le-EPA ekulawuleni amandla kwizityalo, iphinda imo zemithetho yemithetho yamandla.

Ukusetyenziswa komhlaba nezigqibo zokulungisa umhlaba kukwachaphazela iinkundla zikarhulumente, ingakumbi xa kuqutyulwa amalungelo empahla. Ukuthathwa kukaClaus weSihlalo soMphengululo wesihlanu, okusetyenziswa kumaphondo ngeSindululo se 144th, kuye kwaba sisiseko somthetho ofuna imbuyiselo xa imimiselo ihambele phambili. Kelo v. Isixeko saseNew London (2005], iNkuNkundla ixhasa ukusetyenziswa kwemeko ephakamileyo yezoqoqosho, ikhuthaza iimpendulo ze-wistom yesizwe.

Iingxaki Nempembelelo Yezigwebo Zomanyano

Indima yeenkundla zikarhulumente ekuxonxeni urhulumente nasekuhlaleni ayingokugxekwa.

Imithetho yomthetho echaseneyo

Abagxeki badla ngokutyhola abagwebi besizwe ngokutyeshela indima yabo ngokwenza izigqibo zenkqubo kwibhedi. Isenzo sogwebo sibhekisela kwizigqibo ezibonwa njengezisekelwe kwiimbono zobuqu zejaji kunokuba zibe zisekelwe kumbhalo womGaqo-siseko okanye imimiselo. Abagxeki baphikisa ngelithi xa iinkundla zibetha imithetho yedemokhrasi, ziyasithoba isigqibo sokuzilawula. Umzekelo, isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo [ii-Roe v. [[127]]) [72]) ingumzekelo wokuzigweba oluqhelekileyo. Ngokuphikisanayo, ukugweba kupheliswa kwetyala ukuthotyelwa kwemithetho.

Abaxhasi bobuGawulayo baphikisa ngelithi iinkundla kufuneka zikhusele amalungelo amancinane kwii-atriments ezidumileyo/imisebenzi engundoqo yokuhlola. Ulungelelwaniso oluphakathi kwezi mfundiso luyaqhubeka luphembelela ukuphenjelelwa kwemithetho karhulumente.

Ukubekwa Kwezigwebo Zogwebo

Inkqubo yokumisela abagwebi besizwe, ingakumbi abagwebi beNkundla ePhakamileyo, iye yajika kakhulu. Abahlalutyi baxhalabisa ukuba ukungqinwa kwakutshanje `kungaphezulu kukaMerrick Garland' ngo-2016, uBrett Kavaugh ngo-2018, uAmy Coney Barrett ngo-202020, kunye noKetanji Brown Jackson ngo-2022.

Ukubekwa kwenkundla esezantsi kukwangumbandela. Abagwebi besithili soMasipala kunye nesiphaluka ngoku basoloko beneengxelo ezinamandla zengqondo phambi kokunyuswa kwemiqathango yorhulumente neyasekuhlaleni, kwaye izigqibo zabo kwimigaqo-nkqubo zibonakalisa iimbono ezinjalo. Ukwanda “kokutyunjwa kwemithetho-mthetho” njengembambano yephulo kuthetha ukuba ukuqanjwa kwebhentshi yephondo kuzakutshintsha ngokuphawulekayo kuxhomekeka kuba liphi iqela elilawula iWhite House neCathe.

Enye impikiswano ibandakanya ukusetyenziswa kwemiyalelo yelizwe lonke, ```iquart'' imiyalelo evala inkqubo karhulumente kulo lonke ilizwe. Le miyalelo, esoloko ikhutshwa ngabagwebi besithili abanye, iye yasetyenziselwa ukuphelisa izenzo zokulawula ukufuduka, imithetho yemekobume, kunye nemiyalelo yempilo kawonke-wonke. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngokuthi bavumela ijaji enye ukuba ilawule urhulumente kunye nemiqathango yasekuhlaleni, ngoxa abaxhasi besithi iyimfuneko ukukhusela umonakalo ongalungisekiyo.

Isiphelo

Iinkundla zomanyano zinamandla ekulolongeni urhulumente nemigaqo-siseko yasekuhlaleni, esebenza ngomgaqo-siseko wohlolo, izigqibo, kunye nokunyanzeliswa kwamalungelo. Izigqibo zazo zichaphazela zonke iinkalo zokulawula ((8) ukusuka kwindlela izikolo ezifundisa ngayo abantwana, indlela ezichaza ngayo ulawulo lwezempilo, indlela oomasipala abawalawula ngayo amapolisa ezitratweni zabo. Ngoxa le mpembelelo isoloko iyimfuneko ekuphakamiseni imigaqo-siseko, ikwanyusa inkxalabo esemthethweni ngendima efanelekileyo yabagwebi abangakhethwanga kwidemokhrasi yesizwe. Iingxoxo eziqhubekayo ezingoofilo-mthetho nezobupolitika ezimiselwe ziza kuqhubeka zichaza umlinganiselo nendlela yokulawula amandla eejajini kwemithetho yezomthetho karhulumente kangangeminyaka.

Ukuze ufunde ngokubhekele phaya, jonga kwi-website yeNkundla ePhakamileyo, i-[FLT]S] iZiko lolwazi loMthetho we-Cornell School [, kunye [[FLT] Oyez[[FLT:]] ukwenzela ukushwankathela ityala kunye neempikiswano zomlomo.