Isiseko somGaqo-siseko senkqubo elindelekileyo eMelika

UMgaqo-siseko weUnited States asiloxwebhu nje olungokwembali; luyinkqubo ephilayo echaza ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente nabantu bakhe. Kulo mgaqo ungundoqo ukho wenkqubo efanelekileyo(a isiqinisekiso sokuba akukho mntu uza kuphulukana nobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla engenayo imigaqo esesikweni. Eli nqaku lihlola indlela uMgaqo-siseko omisela nokukhusela inkqubo efanelekileyo, ukulandelela imvelaphi yawo, ukwanda kwawo ukutyhubela ukupheliswa kwemiqathango, kunye nesicelo sokwenene sehlabathi kuwo ngaphaya kwenkqubo esemthethweni. Ukuqonda ezi zinto zibalulekile kummi ngamnye, njengoko inkqubo efanelekileyo yenza iliwa le nkqubo yokusesikweni nemiqathango karhulumente.

Oko kuthethwa yinkqubo elindelekileyo phantsi komGaqo-siseko

Imo yengqiqo enzima engokwasemthethweni esekelwe kumacala omabini ahlukeneyo nawaphantsi. Inkqubo yengcaciso efunekayo ifuna urhulumente ukulandela imithetho emiselweyo kunye neenkqubo ngaphambi kokuba enze isenzo esichaphazela amalungelo omntu. Oku kuquka ukunikezela isaziso, ithuba lokuva, nokuphulaphula ngokusesikweni phambi kwenkundla engakhethiyo. Inkqubo efunekayo, kwelinye icala, ikhusela amalungelo athile asisiseko ekungeneleni korhulumente, kwanokuba iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo zilandelwa.

Isiseko somgaqo-siseko somgaqo-siseko somgaqo-nkqubo ofanelekileyo sifumaneka ngokuyintloko kwiinkqubo ezimbini zokulungisa: uHlaziyo lwesihlanu, olusebenza kurhulumente wesizwe, kunye noMphetho-mda weshumi elinesine, oyandisa ukhuseleko olufanayo kurhulumente kunye norhulumente wasekuhlaleni. Olu lwimi lufana phantse ukuba zombini ziya kufumana: “kungekho mntu... oza kuhluthwa ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho.” Eli binzana lilula libangele iinkulungwane zeminyaka yokutolikwa kwezahlulelo kwaye lihlala lisesisekoni senkululeko yaseMelika.

Ukujonga nzulu kwingcaciso engokwasemthethweni yenkqubo efunekayo, iCornell Information Institute inikeza ushwankathelo olunegunya lwamalungu omthetho nawombini aphantsi.

IsiHlomelo Sesihlanu: Inkqubo Yokuqala KaClaus

Isivumelwano samiswa ngowe-1791 njengenxalenye yeBhili yamaLungelo, uMphengululo wesihlanu waba sisiqinisekiso sokuqala esicacileyo senkqubo efunekayo kumGaqo-siseko. Injongo yayo yokuqala yayikukuthintela amandla karhulumente omtsha. Isehlo siqulethe ukhuseleko oludityanisiweyo oluninzi, kuquka ilungelo elikumgwebi omkhulu, ukukhusela kwingozi ephindwe kabini, kunye nelungelo lokuchasene nohlanga-lwano-ziququ zenkqele, kwaye zonke ezo ezixhasa umgaqo ofanelekileyo.

Ukhuseleko Oluyintloko Phantsi Kohlaziyo Lwesihlanu

  • [[FLT: 0] ISikhulu seSifungo soMgaqo-siseko: kulwaphulo-mthetho olunzulu lukarhulumente, umntu akanakubethwa ngaphandle kokuba iqumrhu elikhulu labachopheli-tyala likhupha ityala, liqinisekisa ukuba kunokwenzeka ukuba kukho unobangela phambi kokuba ityala liqhubeke.
  • Ukhuselo oluchasene nobuphindo obuphindwe kabini: Xa umntu ekhululwe ityala okanye egwetyiwe, abanakuphinda bavavanywe ngenxa yetyala elifanayo, nto leyo ethintela urhulumente ukuba angasoloko emkhathaza umntu.
  • [[UMTL:0] Umthetho ochasene nozinyo: Umntu akanakunyanzeleka ukuba anikele ubungqina nxamnye naye, ukhuseleko oluxhasa ukubonakala kobumsulwa.
  • Imodeli Yocwangciso ka Claus: Urhulumente kufuneka alandele iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo phambi kokuba ahluthe nabani na ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla.
  • [[UMTL: 0] unika u-Claus: impahla yabucala ayinakuthathwa ukuze isetyenziswe nguwonke-wonke ngaphandle kwembuyiselo nje, ukhuseleko olunxulumeneyo oluqinisekisa inkqubo efunekayo yezoqoqosho.

Le migaqo isebenza kurhulumente, kungekhona kwihambo yangasese, kodwa imisela umgaqo osisiseko wokusesikweni urhulumente amele awugcine kwimicimbi yolwaphulo - mthetho neyasekuhlaleni ngokufanayo.

UMthetho We - 14 WezoHlaziyo: Ukwandisa Inkqubo Efanelekileyo Kumazwe

Emva kweMfazwe yamakhaya, imfuneko yokukhusela amalungelo amakhoboka asandul' ukukhululwa yakhokelela ekubeni amkele iSichibiyelo seshumi elinesine soMthetho ka-1868. I-Access Accolas isebenza ngokucacileyo kumanqaku athi: “... kwaye nawuphi na uMbuso akayi kuhlutha na umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo elindelekileyo yomthetho.” Oku kwaba lulwando olufuna inguquko, njengangaphambi kokubuyiselwa, iBhili yamaLungelo ibeke umda kuphela kurhulumente.

Ingxelo yamalungelo

Kwakhona isiHlanzi soHlaziyo seshumi elinesine savelisa imfundiso yokubandakanya, apho iNkundla Ephakamileyo ngokuthe ngcembe yasebenzisa amalungiselelo amaninzi eBhili yamaLungelo kumaphondo esebenzisa i-Century Procession Claus. Ngokomzekelo, inkululeko yokuLawula koQala, uKhuselo-mthetho Lwesine lokukhusela ekuphandeni okungekho ngqiqweni, kunye nelungelo leSithandathu lokucebisa lonke. Le nkqubo iqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente noorhulumente basekuhlaleni abanakuwachasa amalungelo asisiseko kunawaphi na kunokuba urhulumente wesizwe usenza.

[[FLT: 0] uphawu lwelizwe oluquka amatyala luquka Gitlow v. New York [[25]) kumlomo wenkululeko, . iOhio [1961] ukukhangela nokuxhuzula, kunye Gideon v. Wainwright[[FLT:] (1983] [1963] ukucebisa ngasekunene. Zonke izigqibo zixhomekeke kwicebo lenkqubo elifanelekileyo lifuna ukuhlonelana.

INkqubo Engagqibekanga Efaneleyo Ngaphantsi Kohlaziyo Lweshumi Elinane

Ngapha koko kukhuselwa, iZiko loMphetho leshumi elinesine litolikwa ukukhusela amalungelo athile angaphantsi kwe-Account Claus “asekelwe ngokunzulu kwimbali nesithethe salo hlanga.” La malungelo aquka ilungelo lokutshata, ilungelo lokufumana izinto zobuqu, nelungelo lokuphakamisa abantwana njengoko omnye ebona ukuba bafanelekile. Inkqubo efunekayo ihlala ingummandla odityaniswayo, kodwa ibisembindini wemithetho ebonakalisa inkcaso enjenge . Roe v.[12]] (118,3]) kunye kunye [ogrome]. v [5]

[[NKQUBO:0] Uhlalutyo lwe Obergefell v. Hodges luchaza indlela iNkundla eyaziyo ukuba inkqubo efunekayo ikhusela ilungelo elingundoqo lokutshata, kungakhathaliseki ubufana.

Ingcaciso yesigwebo kunye nophawu lwenkqubo olufaneleyo

Intsingiselo yenkqubo efunekayo ayimi ndawonye; iguqula izigqibo zejaji. Inkundla ePhakamileyo iye yasebenzisa i-Century Process ukuphendula eminye yemibandela engxamisekileyo yokusesikweni nenkululeko kwimbali yaseMerika.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966) kunye nelungelo lokuthula

Mhlawumbi eyona nkqubo ibalulekileyo edumileyo, imanda v. Arizona yaqinisekisa ukuba amapolisa kufuneka azise abakrokrele ngamalungelo awo ukuba ahlale athule nokuba negqwetha elikhoyo ngexesha lokuncinwa kwegunya. Inkundla yathi ngaphandle kwezi zilumkiso, naziphi na iingxelo ezifunyenweyo zicingelwa ukuba ziyanyanzelwa kwaye azikho enkundleni. Oku kumisela kukhusela ilungelo lokuLandlwa kweSigqibo ngokuzimela ngokwalo kwaye kuqinisekisa ukuba abamangalelwangayelwanga baxelelwe ukuba bangayixelelwanga.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) kunye nelungelo lokunika icebiso

Gideon v. Wainwright, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yavumelana ukuba uLawulo lweSithandathu lwelungelo lokunika isiluleko lusebenza ekuwiseni amatyala ngoMsebenzi weNkqubo we-145th Amendment Claus. Oku kuthetha ukuba nabani na omangalelwe ngolwaphulo-mthetho olunzulu ongakwaziyo ukuhlawula igqwetha makanikwe omnye ngendleko kawonke-wonke. Ityala laguqula inkqubo yezobulungisa, liqinisekisa ukuba ubutyebi abukwenzi ufikelelo lokuzikhusela.

Goldberg v. Kelly (1970) kunye neNkqubo elindelekileyo kuMthetho woLawulo

Inkqubo elindelekileyo ayipheleliselwanga kumatyala akwabaphuli-mthetho. Goldberg v. Kelly, iNkundla yagqiba kwelokuba iingenelo zentlalo-ntle luhlobo lwempahla, yaye phambi kokuba urhulumente aziphelise, kufuneka zinikezele ukuchotshelwa kwangaphambili. Eli tyala landisa ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo kummandla wentlalo, lifuna ukuba abameli banike isaziso, ithuba lokunikela ubungqina, kunye nomenzi wesigqibo ongakhethi.

[[UMTL: 0] Amatyws v. Eldridge[[FL:1] (1976) novavanyo lokulinganisa

Ukufumana oko kukhuselwa ngokwesiko okufunekayo kwimeko ethile, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseka uvavanyo lokulinganisela oluthambileyo ku- Mathews v. Eldidge. Iinkundla zinobunzima obuthathu boothunywashe: inzala yabucala echaphazelekayo, umngcipheko wokunqandwa okuphosakeleyo phantsi kweenkqubo ezikhoyo, nomdla karhulumente kwimpumelelo nezoqoqosho. Olu vavanyo ngoku lusetyenziselwa ukuvavanyanisa inkqubela-nkqubo efunekayo kwiindawo ezisukela kwiziphumo zokufunda.

Inkqubo Efanelekileyo Kwinkqubo Yokusesikweni Kwezaphuli - mthetho

Inkqubo elindelekileyo inxulunyaniswa nenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho, apho izibonda ziphezulu khona, ngokulinganayo, kwaye zinokuphulukana nenkululeko okanye ubomi. UmGaqo-siseko unyanzelisa uthotho lweemfuno ukucutha ibala lokudlala phakathi komntu norhulumente.

Ilungelo Lokuvavanywa Ngokufanelekileyo

IsiHlamlisi seSithandathu siqinisekisa ukuchotshelwa kwetyala ngokukhawuleza nangokungakhethi-cala linye kwisithili apho kwakusenziwa khona ulwaphulo-mthetho. Abameli banelungelo lokuxelelwa ngezityholo, ukumangalela amangqina, nokunyanzela amangqina alungileyo ukuba anikele ubungqina.

Ingcamango Yokungabi Nalucalulo Nomthwalo Wobungqina

Inkqubo elindelekileyo ifuna ukuba urhulumente angqine ityala ngokusengqiqweni. Lo mthwalo uphakamileyo ubonisa ubunzulu besohlwayo solwaphulo-mthetho yaye unciphisa ingozi yokukholelwa ngokuphosakeleyo. Ingcamango yokuba umsulwa ithetha ukuba ummangalelwa akuyomfuneko ukuba angqine into; urhulumente uthwala wonke umthwalo.

Ukumangalela Ukuziphatha Okuphosakeleyo Nobungqina Bokutyhola

Inkqubo elindelekileyo iyabalela abatshutshisi ekusebenziseni ubungqina bobuxoki okanye ekucinezeleni ubungqina obulungileyo kummangalelwa. Ityala lephawu lembali Brady v. Maryland (1963) ibone ukuba ingtshutshiso kufuneka ityhile ubungqina bokuzikhusela. Ukungaphumeleli ukwenza oko kuchasene nenkqubo efanelekileyo kwaye kungakhokelela ekupheliseni iinkolelo.

Indlela Efanelekileyo Yokwenza Oku Ngaphaya Kwamatyala

Inkqubo efunekayo isebenza kwiimeko ezahlukahlukeneyo zelizwe nezolawulo, apho urhulumente enza izigqibo ezichaphazela izinto ezibalulekileyo.

Inkqubela Kwimfundo

Abafundi kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke banomdla wempahla kwimfundo yabo kunye nomdla wenkululeko kudumo lwabo. Phambi kokuba isikolo sinyanzelise ukugxothwa okanye ukugxothwa okude, kufuneka sinike isaziso ngezityholo, ingcaciso yobungqina, kunye nethuba elinentsingiselo lokuba umfundi aphendule. INkundla ePhakamileyo kwi iGos v. Lopez [15] ikholelwa ukuba kwanesithuthi esifutshane sifuna ubuncinane “uhlobo oluthile lokuva." Ezi zikhuselwa ziqinisekisa ukuba abafundi abathathiweyo bangasheki esikolweni ngokungenamdla.

Inkqubela elindelekileyo kumsebenzi neMpawu

Abaqeshwa bakawonke-wonke abanomdla wempahla kwimisebenzi yabo (umz., ngesivumelwano okanye ngenkqubo) abanako ukugxothwa ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo. Ngokufanayo, urhulumente akanakukwazi ukurhoxisa ilayisensi, ukukhaba imvume yokwakha, okanye ukuthatha impahla ngaphandle kokunika isaziso seqela elichaphazelekileyo kunye nethuba lokuviwa. Kwanokurhoxiswa kweengenelo zentlalo-ntle okanye ukuhlawulwa kwesiphene seSocial Security kubangela ukuba kufuneke imigaqo efunekayo.

Iingenelo zolawulo norhulumente

Urhulumente wale mihla uchaphazela abemi ngezigqibo ezininzi zezolawulo . Ukusuka kwimvume yokusebenza kwelizwe ukuya kuMdica ingalawuleki. I-Adrect Processols ifuna ukuba ezi zigqibo zenziwe ngendlela elungileyo, ngokufuthi ngokuva apho abantu banokucel ’ umngeni izenzo ezingalunganga. Iinkqubo ezizizo zahluka kuxhomekeka kumongo, kodwa umgaqo ongundoqo ushiyekile: urhulumente akanakwenza ngokungekho sikweni.

Kwisikhokelo esibanzi kwinkqubo efunekayo yolawulo, i-Melikan Bar Association yoshwankathelo lomthetho wolawulo [ ichaza indlela esebenzayo ngayo ukuva nokubhena.

Ucelomngeni Lwenkqubo Efanele Ilandelwe Kuluntu Lwanamhlanje

Nangona kukho isiseko somgaqo - siseko, inkqubela eqhubekayo isenokubangela iingxaki ezinokubangela ukuba ingasebenzi kakuhle.

Ukwahluka Kobuhlanga Nezoqoqosho

Inkqubo yobulungisa yolwaphulo-mthetho ngokungenakulinganiswa ichaphazela abantu abanemibala nabo banemiqathango elinganiselweyo yemali. Ukusetyenziswa kobuhlanga, ulawulo olunekhethe, kunye nomgangatho ophezulu wokuvalelwa kwabantu abambalwa kuphakamisa imibuzo yokuba ngaba imigaqo efanelekileyo yokukhusela isetyenziswa ngokulinganayo kusini na. Ngaphezu koko, ixabiso eliphezulu lebheyile kunye nomelo olusemthethweni luthetha ukuba ubutyebi bungagqiba enoba umntu uvalelwe phambi kwetyala okanye ufumana isiluleko esaneleyo. Ezi zicalucalucalucalulo ziphelisa isithembiso senkqubo efanelekileyo kubo bonke abantu.

Ukuxilonga nokuxilonga okugqithiseleyo

Inkqubo elindelekileyo isoloko iphenjelelwa kukwanda kwezicelo ezithe chatha. Ngaphezu kwamatyala angama-90% aphela ngokwenziwa kwezicelo, apho abamangalelwa belichitha khona ilungelo labo lokuvavanya isigwebo esincitshisiweyo. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngokuthi isibongozo somcelo somcebi sinika isindululo kunye nesisongelo sesivakalisi eside kakhulu kwingcinezelo yokuvavanya abantu abangenatyala ukumangalela abantu abamsulwa ukuba babe netyala, .

Inkqubo yoKhuseleko lweSizwe kunye neNkqubo eBekiweyo

Emva kwe-9/11, urhulumente uye waqinisekisa ukuba amagunya abanzi egameni lokhuseleko lwesizwe, maxa wambi ngendleko efunekayo. Ukuvalelwa kweentshaba, ukusetyenziswa koorhulumente, kunye neenkqubo zokuhlola ezingenagunya zonke zinyuse inkxalabo ezifanelekileyo. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yazijula emva kwiimeko ezifana Hamdi v. Rumsfeld [2004], ibambe ukuba kwanabemi abamiselwe njengotshaba banelungelo lokuvavanya ukuvalelwa kwabo phambi komphathi wesigqibo sobundilele.

Inkqubo elindelekileyo yamanani obuqu

Ubuxhakaxhaka buye badala ucelomngeni olutsha olufunekayo. Ngoku abanyanzeli bomthetho bangafumana ubuninzi obukhulu be-data yomntu ngamnye `i-emails, imbali yendawo, iingxelo zokukhangela `encwadi'') ngaphandle kwemvume okanye i-epain. INkundla ePhakamileyo kwi ka-Cardenter v. United States [2018]) yawisa umthetho wokuba ukufikelela kwindawo yogcino-lwazi lweselfowuni kufuna isiqinisekiso esisekelwe kwisizathu esilindelekileyo, ukuqaphela ukuba imfihlo yamanani ibalulekile kwinkululeko. Kodwa imibuzo emininzi ishiyekile malunga nendlela esetyenziswa ngayo ekuqokelelweni ugcino-data, ulwano, ulwano lwe-algalgaldic-enzic.

Ukungena nokuQhubelana

Iingxelo zokurhoxa-mali ziye zajongwa ngokwembali njengezolwaphulo-mthetho, zivumela ukhuseleko oluncinci olufanelekileyo. Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaqinisekisa ukuba abantu abangahlaliyo eUnited States banelungelo lokufumana inkqubo efanelekileyo. Oku kuquka ilungelo lokuchonga, ilungelo lokunika icebiso (nakuba kungengandleko karhulumente), kwanelungelo lokufumana ubungqina obukhoyo. Sekunjalo, ukususwa, ukuvalelwa ngaphandle kwamaqhina, kunye nokuncitshiswa kwekomiti egweba kuyaqhubeka kuvavanya inkqubo efanelekileyo yenkqubo yokufuduka.

[[UMTL:0] ACLU izibonelelo zamalungelo ondwendwe kunye nenkqubo efunekayo zinika uhlalutyo oluqhubekayo lwale ngxaki iqhubekayo.

Indima Ehlala Ihleli YomGaqo-siseko Ekukhuseleni Inkqubo Elindelekileyo

Isixokelelwano esifanelekileyo somGaqo-siseko asikukuzinqumla; kufuneka ukhuseleko oluzinzileyo kunye nokutolikwa. Kwiinkulungwane ezimbini, iinkundla ziye zandisa zaza zaziphucula ezi ntetho ukuze ziphendule kwiingozi ezintsha kwaye zicombulule imigaqo esesikweni. Ukuqinisekisa ukuba ummangalelwa ngamnye unegqwetha elifuna ukuba izikolo ziphathe abafundi ngokufanelekileyo, inkqubo efunekayo ihlala iyikhusi elinamandla nxamnye namandla orhulumente azimeleyo.

Njengabemi, ukuqonda la malungelo kusinika amandla okufuna ukuphenduliswa. UmGaqo-siseko unika izixhobo, kodwa kuxhomekeke kwisizukulwana ngasinye ukuqinisekisa ukuba inkqubo efanelekileyo ayingomgaqo nje obhaliweyo kodwa yinto ephilayo. Ngokuhlala saziwa ngezigqibo zenkundla, ngokukhuthaza utshintsho, nokuba nenxaxheba kwinkqubo yedemokhrasi, sinceda ekulondolozeni inkqubo efanelekileyo yokusesikweni nenkululeko kubo bonke abantu.