Imbali yomGaqo-siseko

UMgaqo-siseko wase-United States, wabhaliswa ngo1787 ngexesha leNdibano yePhiladelphia, yavela kwixesha lengxaki yezobupolitika. Inqaku leConfederation, lagunyaziswa ngo-1781, ladala umanyano olungenazintlukwano lwamazwe alawulayo norhulumente ombindi obuthathaka ongenakukwazi ukuhlawula irhafu, okanye ukunyanzelisa imithetho esebenzayo. Imvukelo kaShays ngo1786/1787, imvukelo yabalimi ababolekisa amatyala eMassachusetts, yabhenca ukungakwazi ukugcina ucwangco nozinzo lwezoqoqosho. Le ngxaki yabangela abathunywa bezomkhosi abasuka kumazwe alishumi elinesibini (Rhode Island abavumi) ukuba babe nenxaxheba ePhiladelphiya ngenjongo ekwathiwe yokubuyisela izicwangciso, kodwa bagqiba ummiselo worhulumente omtsha.

Ukulungelelanisa okungundoqo kwiNdibano yoMgaqo-siseko

Inkqubo yokuyila yaphawulwa ziingxoxo ezinzulu nokuyekelela okwabumba uxwebhu lokugqibela:

  • Ulalanisa Okukhulu (Ukudibanisa): Wagqiba ungquzulwano phakathi kwamazwe amakhulu namancinci ngokudala indlu yowiso-mthetho ebamba i-amen. Indlu yabameli iza kusekelwe kubemi, ngeli lixa iNdlu yeNtlanganiso izakunika umelo olulinganayo lwesizwe ngalinye. /_2 i-sentenerss translate.
  • Isivumelwano esinzulu sanika amaphondo asemazantsi amandla ezobupolitika angenakulinganiswa kwaye satyhalela ulawulo kumgaqo-siseko.
  • Urhwebo norhwebo lwamakhoboka luyekelela: Ingqungquthela eyathi inqanda ukuvalwa korhwebo lwamakhoboka ehlabathi lonke de kwangonyaka wo1888 kwaye yavumela iBhunga ukuba lilawule ushishino lwamazwe ngamazwe ngaphandle kokuba lifune izinto ezinkulu.

Olu hlengahlengiso lwalubalulekile ekuqhambuleni, kodwa lukwathi luzimisela ungquzulwano olungundoqo qha ngenxa yobukhoboka qha, oluya kukhokelela kwimfazwe yamakhaya.

Ukhuthuzo kunye neNkxaso yoLuntu loLuntu-Anti-Federalist

Emva kweNdibano, umGaqo-siseko wafuna ukwenziwa kwamaqela adityanisiweyo ngesithoba kumaphondo alithoba. Umzabalazo wokwandiswa kwemiba ephambili yezobupolitika kwimbali yaseMelika. Abameli, kuquka uAlexander Hamilton, uJames Madison, noJohn Jay, baphikisa urhulumente wesizwe onamandla kwaye bapapasha iPapers zobuGawulayo ze-Fomati [[FLT] [[FLT]] [[FLT]] [iinte:3] ukuchaza nokukhusela uMgaqo-siseko. Anti-Féderalist Henry noGeorge Mason, babesoyika ukuba urhulumente omtsha anyanze urhulumente nolawulo lwenkululeko. Ukuchasa isithembiso sabo sawo sawo sawongezwa ngokukhawuleza emva koluvo oluluncedo kulawulo olufana noluvo lwaseNew York.

Imigaqo esesikweni yomGaqo-siseko

UmGaqo-siseko usekelwe kwimigaqo emihlanu edityanisiweyo edibanisayo eyenza isiseko esihlala sihleli sikarhulumente weriphabliki. Le migaqo ayiyoengcamango ezingekho ngqiqweni; yimithetho esebenzayo ebumba yonke imihla yolawulo lwamaMerika.

Ulongamo Oluthandwayo

Ulawulo oluqhelekileyo luthetha ukuba igunya likarhulumente lifumaneka kwimvume yabalawulwa. UmGaqo-siseko uqala ngo- “Thina bantu baseUnited States,” umisela ukuba igunya likarhulumente lisuka kubemi, kungekhona kukumkani okanye kudidi olulawulayo. Lo mgaqo ubonakaliswa ngonyulo oluthe rhoqo, inkqubo yokulungisa, kunye nemfuneko yokuba abameli baphendule iinkonzo zabo. Xa abavoti bekhetha umongameli okanye ilungu leBhunga, basebenzisa ulawulo oluqhelekileyo ngendlela ekhethekileyo.

Ukwahlukana Kwamagunya

UMgaqo-siseko wahlula igunya lesizwe phakathi kwamasebe amathathu: uwiso-mthetho (uMphathi-mthetho), isebe eliphetheyo (umongameli), kunye neenkundla zezomthetho. Isebe ngalinye linemisebenzi yalo eyahlukileyo. Igalelo Ndinika onke amagunya owiso-mthetho kwiBhunga; IGatya II izicathulo ezilawulayo kuMongameli; IGatya II elimisela amandla okugweba kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye neenkundla ezisezantsi. Oku kuthintela naliphi na isebe elinye ekufumaneni igunya elininzi kakhulu. Umzekelo, iNkxatyaniso ibhala imithetho, kodwa uMongameli uyayiphumeza, kunye neenkundla ziyawatolika. Umthetho lowo uMongameli akanawo ukuwenza okanye ulwaphulo-mthetho owenziswayo.

Iipeksi Nolungelelwano

Ukwenza ulwahlulo lwamagunya abe yokwenene, uMgaqo-siseko unika izixhobo zamasebe onke ukuthintela amanye. UMongameli angavakalisa imithetho engekho mthethweni edluliswa yiBhunga; uMbutho ungawulawula ummandla ngevoti ezi-3 ezimbini emagumbini omabini. IBhunga liqinisekisa ukumiswa komongameli nokuquququzelelwa kwezivumelwano. IBhunga liyakwazi ukukhupha uMongameli kunye nokususa abagwebi besebe. Kwisigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo, iSigqeba esingekho semthethweni ngokuhlola okusesikweni, amandla angabhalwangangqalathiswanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko kodwa asekwa kwimithetho esetyenziswayo [[FLT:] [FLT:] [FLT]] imarbury v.[FLT:] [185]). Kuso mmiselo, iJajini eliyintloko uJohn Marshalls wabhala ukuba “ilo ligxininise kulo phondo, umgaqo wesebenzo lomthetho wezomthetho wezomthetho.

Umanyano

Umanyano lwahlula amandla phakathi korhulumente wesizwe noorhulumente besizwe. UmGaqo-siseko ubala amagunya akhethekileyo karhulumente worhulumente wesizwe . afana nokuveliswa kwemali, ukubhengezwa kwemfazwe, kunye nokulawulwa kwezorhwebo lwamazwe ngamazwe. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, onke amanye amagunya kumazwe okanye abantu (njengoko kuchazwe kwiSindululo seshumi elinesithathu). Eli candelo livumela amazwe ukuba asebenze njengeejelo-demokhrasi zedemokhrasi, asebenzise imigaqo eyahlukileyo kwimfundo, ukuzama ukunyamekela impilo, kunye nemithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho. Ulungelelwaniso lwamandla phakathi kwegunya lorhulumente norhulumente kuye kwaba ngumba ophambili kwimbali yaseMelika, ukusuka kwiNunityhestiki yee-1830 ukuya kwingxoxo yomthetho-mfashoni wemsayini kunye nolawulo-Rwanda.

Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo

Ngo-1791, iBhili yamaLungelo iquka izilungiso zokuqala ezilishumi zomGaqo-siseko. Ezi zindululo zabhalelwa nguJames Madison kwaye zenzelwe ukuthetha neAnti-Federalist malunga nenkululeko yabantu. IBhili yamaLungelo ibekelwe imiqathango yegunya likarhulumente ngokukhusela amalungelo asisiseko akhethekileyo. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, uninzi lwale migaqo yokhuseleko luye lwasetyenziswa kumazwe kakuhle nakudlula kuMbutho we-14th Amendmentermented Clausces, inkqubo ebizwa ngokuba yi-Contensiontion.

Ukhuseleko Oluyintloko Kuhlaziyo Lokuqala Olulishumi

  • IsiHlanzi soMgqibo sokuqala: [ sikhusela inkululeko yokuthetha, yonqulo, yokushicilela, yendibano, kunye nelungelo lokucela urhulumente. Oku kulungisa kusingiselelo sentetho yedemokhrasi, ivumela abemi ukuba bagxeke iinkokeli zabo nabameli beenguqulelo ngaphandle koloyiko lokuziphindezela.
  • [[FLT: 0] Uhlaziyo oluqulunqweyo: lukhusela ilungelo lokugcina nokuphatha iingalo. Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi Divertical of Columbia v. Heller [2008] kunye [FLT]] [FLT]MDONAld v. isixeko saseChicago[ (2010]) yaqinisekisa ukuba eli lungelo lingumntu ngamnye ongaxhomekekanga kwinkonzo yemikhosi.
  • Uhlaziyo olupheleleyo: lukhupha urhulumente kumajoni ahlala kwikota yamakhaya abantu ngexesha loxolo ngaphandle kwemvume yomnini. Nangona inqabile, ibonakalisa amava okusekwa kwesizukulwana ngenkani yomkhosi waseBritane.
  • [[NTL:0] UHlaliso lweNkqutyana: lukhusela ekuphandeni okungekho ngqiqweni nasekuxhuzuleni kwaye lufuna imfuneko zokuxhaswa yisizathu esilindelekileyo. Oku kulungiswa koqheliselo lwamapolisa lwangoku, kuquka ukusetyenziswa kobugcisa bokuhlola kunye nokumiswa kweetrafiki.
  • [[NTL:0] FINTP Amendment: imisela amaqumrhu aphezulu olwaphulo-mthetho olunzulu, ithintela iingozi eziphindwe kabini, ikhusela ekuzidibaniseni, kwaye iqinisekisa inkqubo efunekayo kunye nembuyekezo yepropati ethatyathwe phantsi kolawulo oluphezulu.
  • IsiHlalisi-mda se-Imente: iqinisekisa ilungelo lokuvavanywa kwetyala elikhawulezayo nelinoluntu livela kwinkundla yabachopheli-tyala abangakhethiyo, ukuxelelwa ngezityholo, ukumangalela amangqina, nokuba nesiluleko esisemthethweni. Ityala lengqalelo yembali Gideon v. Wainwright[ [1963])) liqinisekisa ukuba amagqwetha kufuneka anike abamangali-mthetho abamangali-mthetho abangenakukwazi ukuwahlawula.
  • [[UMKUBE:0] IsiHlalisi seNkqutyana: Ulondoloza ilungelo lokuchophela ityala ngabachopheli-tyala kumatyala asekuhlaleni abandakanya ngaphezu kweedola ezingamashumi amabini.
  • [[FLT: 0] Ukuhlaziywa koMphetho-mva: Izakhono zebheyile, intlawulo egqithisileyo, kunye nezohlwayo ezikhohlakeleyo nezingaqhelekanga. Oku kulungisa kuye kwaba ngundoqo kwingxoxo ngesohlwayo sentambo kunye neemeko zentolongo.
  • UHlaliso lweNtsimbi: lucacisa ukuba uludwe lwamalungelo athile kumGaqo-siseko aluwakhanyi okanye awahluli amanye amalungelo agcinwe ngabantu. Le ngxelo iqinisekisa ukuba iBhili yamaLungelo ayinakufundwa njengoluhlu olupheleleyo lwamalungelo omntu onke.
  • IsiHlaziselo seTenth Amendment:[ Amagunya okugcina akathunyelwanga kurhulumente worhulumente wezwe kumaphondo okanye kubantu. Le ngxaki sisiseko somgaqo-siseko sempikiswano yamalungelo karhulumente.

Uhlaziyo Nendaleko

UmGaqo-siseko usoloko ubizwa ngokuba luxwebhu oluphilayo kuba inkqubo yawo yokulungisa ikuvumela kulungelelaniso kwiimeko ezitshintshayo. Inqaku V linikela iindlela ezimbini zokucebisa ukubuyiselwa: ivoti yesithathu kuzo zombini izindlu zeBhunga, okanye indibano ebizwa zii-3 ezimbini zeendlu zowiso-mthetho zikarhulumente. Zonke iinguquko ezingamashumi amabini anesixhenxe zicetyiwe yiBhunga. I-Ratiation ifuna uvumo lwezintathu-sine zamazwe (ngoku ezingamashumi amathathu anesibhozo).

Uhlaziyo Olubalulekileyo

  • UHlaziyo lweThirete (1865): Ubukhoboka nobukhoboka obungeyomfuneko, ngaphandle kwesohlwayo solwaphulo-mthetho. Oku kulungiswa kwaphelisa isibonelelo esasisahlula uhlanga kwaye kwafuna iziHlaliso zoQokelela-mthetho zilandelwe.
  • Isombululo se-Fourtenth Amendment (1868): ubumi obuchazwe, obuqinisekisiweyo bokhuseleko olulinganayo phantsi komthetho, kwaye busebenzisa inkqubo efunekayo kurhulumente. UKhuselo lwe-Felt Clausbe luye lwaba sisiseko semithetho yamalungelo angokoluntu, kuquka Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo [1954], eyabetha phantsi kwemibutho yesizwe kwizikolo zikawonke wonke, kunye [[FLT:] Ogbergeroble v. Hog.[[FLD:5]]
  • Fintenth Amendment (1870): yabonisa ukukhanyelwa kwelungelo lokuvota ngokusekelwe kuhlanga, umbala, okanye kwimeko yangaphambili yobukhoboka. Phezu kwako nje ukubuyiselwa, uqheliselo lokukhupha umlomo njengerhafu yokuhlawula, iimviwo zokufunda, kunye nogonyamelo lwacinezela umvoti Black ukurhoxa malunga nenkulungwane de kube nguMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1965.
  • ISinyuso seNinetenth (1920): ilungelo lokuvota. Le nguquko yabangelwa kumashumi eminyaka e-amaqela e-activation ngokubhalisa njengoSusan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, noAlice Paul.
  • Uhlaziyo lwama-31] (1964): irhafu yovotelo kunyulo lorhulumente. Iirhafu ezingqukuva zisetyenziswe kakhulu kumazwe asemazantsi ukususa ingeniso esezantsi yevoti yaseAfrika.
  • UHlaliso lweNkqutyana-nyaka ka19971: lwathoba iminyaka yokuvota ukuya kwishumi elinesibhozo. Impikiswano yokuba abo badala ngokwaneleyo ukuba bafumane umkhosi eVietnam kufuneka bakwazi ukuvota baqhubele phambili intlawulo ekhawulezileyo yokulungisa lento."Ithathe iintsuku ezilikhulu kuphela.

Ulungiso ngalunye lubonisa uxanduva kunye namaxabiso exesha lalo. Zizonke zibonisa ukuba umGaqo-siseko, ngexa uhlala, awumi. Njengoko uMgwebi omkhulu uJohn Marshall abhala kwi Mcloch v. Maryland [1819], “akufunekanga silibale, ukuba ngumgaqo-siseko esiwuchazayo" //isakhiwo esicetyiweyo esicetyiweyo ukunyamezela ukutyhubela iminyaka nokuziqhelanisa neemfuno zohlanga.

UmGaqo-siseko Oqheliselwayo

UmGaqo-siseko asilocandelo lomzinzo; ngumgaqo-siseko osebenzayo obumba zonke iinkalo zolawulo lwamaMelika. Iinkalo ezintathu ezingundoqo zokulawula ngezantsi kwe-judic uhlolo, umthetho, kunye nesenzo sokulawula, -- ugcina umGaqo-siseko uphila kubomi bezopolitiko nobezomthetho bemihla ngemihla.

Ukubukezwa Kwezogwebo Namatyala Ophawu

Kusukela Marbury v. Madison, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yenza uhlolo lokugweba ukuze ichaze imida yentsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko. Amatyala amaninzi aye atolika izigaba zomGaqo-siseko. Umzekelo:

  • [[NTL:0] McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) yaseka ukuba urhulumente wezwe ubonise amandla angaphaya kwalawo adweliswe ngokucacileyo, kwaye ithi ayinako ukuhlawula irhafu yamaziko karhulumente. Eli tyala lichaza ngokubanzi okuyimfuneko nokufanelekileyo uClaus kwaye ligxininisa ubukhulu bolawulo.
  • Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954) yagqiba ukuba amasebe emfundo awahlukeneyo awalingani ngokwemvelo, ibhukuqa imfundiso “ehlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo” evela ku Pnety v. Ferguson [1896]). Esi sigqibo sixhomekeke kwiSikhuseli esilinganayo soMphetho we 145 weMphetho ka Claus.
  • [[NTLT:0] Roe v. Inkundla iqaphele ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko lokukhupha isisu elinwebela kwisigqibo sebhinqa, esisekelwe kwi-Curtive Clause ye-145 Demendment. INkundla engaphezulu yalawula Roe [ ku [[FLT:]] [[FLT]]] ku Dobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization of Amen [[FLT:] [2022]], ibuyisela umgaqo wokuqhomfa kumazwe kunye nengxoxo enzulu ngokuzinziswa komgaqo-mthetho.
  • I-Citizens United v. FEC (2010) yakholelwa ukuba imali exhaswa yinkampani yezosasazo ezizimeleyo zezobupolitika ayinakuthintelwa phantsi koMphetho-mva wesiHluzi sokuqala, ibuyisela umthetho wezemali.

Ezi zigqibo zibonisa ukuba intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko iyaphikiswa yaye iguquka njengezinto ezisesikweni zichaza umbhalo ngeentanda - bulumko ezahlukeneyo zokugweba, ukususela kwimfundiso yantlandlolo ukusa kumgaqo - siseko.

Umthetho kunye neMida yoMgaqo-siseko

IKhomishini kufuneka imisele imithetho ekwicandelo layo elidweliswe kumagunya. ICommerce Classias (Icandelo lesi-8, u-Classicle 3) ibingumthombo onwebekayo wegunya lemithetho. Wickard v. Filburn [1952]]), iNkundla ixhasa ulawulo lwengqolowa olulawulayo lwengqolowa ekhulayo ngenxa yokusebenzisa izinto zobuqu, iqiqal'ulo lokuba imisebenzi emincinane inokuba nesiphumo esithelekelele kwintengiselwano. [[FLTLT:2]] kumthetho we-United States v. Lopez[[FLTLT:] [195] [195], iNkundla yexesha lokuqala kwiminyaka engamashumi amathandathu amathandathu anamashumi amathandathu anesithandathu (666) i-okst Congressioning, imiday i-ography) kunye ne-ography.

Isenzo esinegunya kunye nezindululo zomGaqo-siseko

UMongameli kufuneka asebenze phakathi komGaqo-siseko. Umzekelo, imiyalelo elawula imisebenzi karhulumente worhulumente worhulumente, ayinakuyila umthetho omtsha. Amandla obuongameli anwebe kwiindawo ezifana nokhuseleko lwesizwe nemicimbi yamanye amazwe, ngokufuthi evavanywe zinkundla. Isigqibo seWar Power sowesiGqibo sika- 1973, sigqithe kuMongameli Nixon'sveto, izama ukulinganisela amandla kaMongameli okuxhobisa imikhosi exhobileyo ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa yingqungquzulwano. [[FLT: 0]] kwimibutho encinane ephezulu ye-Cetalogne. [ngee-CT] I-CYM; Tube Co. Sawyer[FLD] [195], iNkugqibeleleka yeNkulawula i-Spowesternca yoMkhosi u-Trum, isoloko ikhomba ebonakalisa amandla elawulayongamele ukusetyenziswa kwemfazwe e-Romet, eLavent. [12]

Imfundo nomGaqo-siseko

Ukufundisa umGaqo-siseko ngokunempumelelo kufuna ukucaciswa ngaphaya kokucatshulwa kwamanqaku nokulungisa. Ukuqonda indlela umGaqo-siseko osebenza ngayo kwiimbambano zokwenene kukhuthaza ubuchule boluntu nokulungiselela abafundi ukuba babe nobumi obusebenzayo. [FLT][1]] umGaqo-siseko wesizwe [[[[FLT]][FLT][2] [[FLT]] [ibonelo]] inikezela ngesisa izinto eziluncedo, kuquka umGaqo-siseko we10, okhuthaza abafundi ukuhlolisisa imbali kunye nengxoxo yezomthetho-siseko yanamhlanje. Ngokunjalo, [[FLT:][FLT] [FLT] [FLT]] unika unikezelo olukhululekileyo oluphezulu lweNkuquluko lwezo oluphumayo oluphumayo oluphumayo oluphumayo, olunika abafundi ukuvayo oluphumayo oluphumayo oluphumayo olubhaliweyoyo olusemthethweni, oluthiweyo, oluvumela ukuvayoku

Iindlela Ezisebenzisekayo Zokufundisa Abafundisi

  • [[FLT: 0] Iimvavanyo ze-Mock kunye neNkundla yeNkundla yeNkundla ePhakamileyo: Ukubeka ingxubusho yeNkundla ePhakamileyo kwiimeko ezinjenge New Jersey v. T.L.O. [1985] okanye 's . Johnson [199] unceda abafundi baqonde indlela imigaqo yesiseko esebenza ngayo kwizibaka zokwenene.
  • Impikiswano yeConstitunial: ehlela iingxoxo kwimibandela enjengenkululeko yokuthetha kwi-media yezentlalo, ilungelo lokuphatha iimfazwe, okanye imida yamandla alawulayo enyanzelisa abafundi ukuba balwe namacala omabini amakhuba.
  • Umthombo wohlalutyo: Ukufunda amaPhepha aMalungiselelo, imibhalo elwa no-Federalist, kunye noonobumba phakathi kwabaseki banika ingqiqo ecacileyo kwiimpikiswano zokuqala kunye nohlengahlengiso olubumba uxwebhu.
  • Ukunxulumanisa kwiziganeko zangoku: Ukuxoxa ngendlela umGaqo-siseko osebenza ngayo kwintloko-ntloko-------njengemingeni yokwamkela isenzo, okanye imithetho yokuchola] yenza uxwebhu luzive lukhawulezile kwaye lufanelekile.
  • Iiprojekthi ze-Cicobic:[ Abafundi abakhuthazayo ukuba baye kwiintlanganiso zikarhulumente zasekuhlaleni, babhalele abameli babo, okanye uphando olucetyiweyo luphucule ukudibana kwemigaqo yesiseko ngaphandle kweklasi.

[[UMTL:0][FLT] Ugcino-lwazi lobuzwe lunika umbhalo opheleleyo womGaqo-siseko kunye nemifanekiso ephezulu ehlanguliweyo kunye nomongo wembali, ukwenze kube lula kubafundisi ukuzisa uxwebhu lokuqala kwiklasi.

Isiphelo

UMgaqo-siseko usele usisiseko serepublic yaseMerika. Imvelaphi yawo engokwembali kunye nokungagqibeki kweMigaqo yeNkqutyana yeeNkcukacha, imigaqo yawo esisiseko yolawulo oluqhelekileyo, ukwahlukana kwamagunya, ukuxilonga nokulungelelana, kunye nobuchule bawo bokulungisa, kunye nokukwazi kwawo ukumamisa kunye nokuyila isakhiwo esiye sahlala ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini. IBhili yamaLungelo kunye nokulungisa okulandelayo kuye kwandisa inkululeko nokulingana, kwanjengokuba ilizwe liye lazama ukuphila ngokweenjongo zalo. Ngohlaluliso lwezahlulelo, umthetho, nangezenzo zempatho-siseko, uMgaqo-siseko uyaqhubeka ulawula kwaye ukhusela amalungelo. Kubafundisa kunye nabafundi ngokufanayo, ukuqhubana nomGaqo-siseko, ukuquluko, ukulungiselela nje ukuqheliswa kwemfundo kodwa ukuqhelisela ubumisholo lwezo-demokhrasi. Njengoko uxwebhu ngokwalo luye luye lwazilungisa ucelomngeni olutsha, ukulungiselela uvavanyo olugqibeleleyo.