Isiseko somGaqo-siseko seSikolo

UMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States usebenze njengendawo yemfazwe kunye nesibane esibonisa imfazwe kumzamo omde wokususa izikolo zaseMelika. Ukusuka ekudilizweni kweziHlaliso zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ukuya kwizindululo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo, umGaqo-siseko ulungiselele isiseko esisemthethweni sokwahlula ucalucalulo lobuhlanga kwimfundo. Ngoxa uhambo olusuka [[FLT: 0] Prevery v. Ferguson ukuya ku Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo yeNtlanga yoluko kwaye iye yaqhubeka ingumgxube wendlela kodwa, umGaqo-siseko uhlala ulityelelo lwexesha elilingana nethuba lokufundiswa. Le ngxelo imbali yembali yemfundo dexmandreans, igosaends ezingundoqo zenkundla zenkundla zezenteko yaseMelika iqhubekele namhlanje, kwaye iqhubeke iin imicimbi yenkundla yeze ikho.

Ukuhlaziywa Kohlaziyo Nesithembiso Somgangatho

Ibali lomgaqo-siseko lokususwa kwesikolo aliqali ngeminyaka yee-1950, kodwa kwiminyaka yangoko emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya. UMthetho-mboleko weshumi elinesithathu (1865) waphelisa ubukhoboka, uMphengululo weshumi elinesine (1868) wamisela ubuzibulo kwaye waqinisekisa ukuba ubuzibulo bulingana kwaye waqinisekisa ukuba kukhuselwe phantsi komthetho, kunye noMphengululo weshumi elinesihlanu (1870) owalela ucalucalucalulo lobuhlanga. Zonke ezi zindululo zazicelwe ukuyila umgaqo omtsha womgaqo-siseko apho uhlanga lwalungasayi kuphinda luwafumanise amalungelo omntu.

I-Unimetic Protection Clause yeSinyusi seshumi elinesine singundoqo ngokukhethekileyo kumgudu wokuphelisa ucalucalulo. Ifundeka ngolu hlobo: "Akukho rhulumente... oya kukhanyela nawuphi na umntu okwigunya lakhe ukukhuselwa okufanayo kwemithetho. Olu lwimi lubonakala lulula lungaba ngumbandela wengxoxo enzulu engokwasemthethweni phantse iminyaka emalunga nekhulu. Igalelo aliyikhankanyanga ngokucacileyo imfundo, kodwa isiqinisekiso salo esibanzi sokulingana phantsi komthetho sinika isixhobo esinamandla kumalungelo abantu abaxhasa amalungelo abantu abaphikisa ukuba izikolo ezihlukeneyo azinakuze zilinganiswe ngokwenene.

Imfundiso ye "Isahlulo Kodwa Ilingana"

Ngaphandle kwesithembiso sokwenziwa kwakhona koHlaziyo, isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yowe-1896 [ku-. Pnety v. sathabatha isibetho esitshabalalisayo kuhlanga olulinganayo. Ngaloo meko, iNkundla yaxhasa umthetho weLouisiana ofuna ucalucalulo lobuhlanga kwiinqwelo-mfololiwe, imisela imfundiso ye-"Idm-ecendice kodwa iyalingana. Inkundla yaqiqabela ukuba i-elele ukunyanzelisa ukulingana okusemthethweni kuphela, hayi ukuphelisa ukwahlukana ngokwentlalo olusekelwe kuhlanga.

IJaji uJohn Marshall Harlan, ongomnye ophikisayo kwi , wabhala ngokudumileyo: "UmGaqo-siseko wethu ungumfama, kwaye akakwazi ukunyamezela okanye ukunyamezela iiklasi phakathi kwabemi bawo." Umbono kaHarlan wawungayi kuba ngumthetho welizwe ngamashumi amathandathu eminyaka, kodwa ukuchasana kwakhe kwanika impikiswano engokomGaqo-siseko yokuba amagqwetha amalungelo abantu azakusebenzisa kamva ukucel ’ umngeni i-liv. Kwisiqingatha sokuqala senkulungwane yamashumi amabini, i-"77 kodwa i-" imfundiso elinganayo ayilawulwangalawuli beziporo kuphela kodwa kwanezikolo zikawonke wonke, ingakumbi kwi-Jimrow South.

Ingcamango Yokulingana Ezikolweni Ezahlukeneyo

Ngokwendlela eqheliselwa ngayo, izikolo ezahlukeneyo zabantwana abantsundu zazingalingani neze neziya kubantwana abamhlophe. Amaphondo aseMazantsi alungelelaniswe ngezikolo ezimnyama, enika uqoqosho oluncinane, imivuzo esezantsi yomfundisi- ntsapho, izakhiwo ezidilikayo, kunye neencwadi zokubhala eziphelelwe lixesha. Ngeminyaka yee1930, iNational Association for the Adrived of Colored People (NAACP) yaqalisa iqhinga elisemthethweni lokubhenca ubungangalingani bemfundo esusiweyo. Kunokuba icebise ngqo [[FLT: 0] Pressible , i-NACP ithe xa kuqaliswa ukuba ithel'ethel' into yokuba ingakwazi ukubonelela izakhiwo ezilinganayo kubafundi abaMnyama abamnyama, ngaloo ndlela ichasene ne-Actal Provicence Claus.

Iphulo likaNaACP elingokwasemthethweni nendlela eya eBrown

Iphulo lomthetho leNAACP, elikhokelwa nguCharles Hamilton Houston kunye noThur-fault Marshall, laqhubekeka ngobuchule ngeenkundla. Kwimeko ezinjenge Missouri ex rel. Igaines v. Canada [[38], SIULY] v. Ibhodi yeRegents yase-Oklahouse [[FLT] [FLT] [198] [198]), kunye [[FLT] Sweatt v. [[FLT] [FLT] [5] [1950], i-NACPCP] ithelekele i-translateddioussting kwizifundo nakumashishini. Ezi meko zakhiwe ngolwazi, ezizimothenjiweyo, ezilinganayo, kwaye zingabi zingena kumaqela amanani, kunye nakulingana namaqela.

Ekuqaleni koo1950, iNAACP yayikulungele ukucel ’ umngeni ubugqeba bokwahlulwa ngokwabo. Umbutho wafaka ityala kumazwe amaninzi, uphikisa ngelithi izikolo ezahlukeneyo azilingani ngokwemvelo, kungakhathaliseki ukuba oovimba ababonakalayo bayalingana. La matyala adityaniswa kwi Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yaseTopeka, eyavunywa yiNkundla Ephakamileyo.

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo: I-Watersed yomGaqo-siseko

NgoMeyi 17, 1954, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yakhupha isigqibo sayo esingqinelanayo [FLT]BN v. Ibhodi yemfundo. Intloko yeJaji Earl Warren, ibhalela iNkundla, yavakalisa ukuba "izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukeneyo azilingani ncam" kwaye zihluza abantwana abamnyama ukhuseleko olulinganayo phantsi komthetho. Inkundla ixhomekeke kakhulu kubungqina benzululwazi yentlalo, kuquka izifundo ezidumileyo zesazi sengqondo uKenneth noMamie Clark, ezibonisa ukulimala kwengqondo okubangelwa yi-gconf.

I Isigqibo se-'FLT' sarhoxa Pnety v. Ferguson kumongo wemfundo kawonke-wonke. INkundla yathi ucalulo kwizikolo zikawonke wonke lwaphula umthetho uKhuselo olulinganayo lweSimezo se 149th Amendment. Esi sigqibo sasingumthetho wesiseko kunye nomthetho wendlela yokuziphatha. Njengoko uWarren wabhala: "Sigqiba kwelokuba kwintsiba yemfundo kawonke imfundiso ye-'2' kodwa ilinganayo' ayinandawo."

Brown II: "Ngesantya Esipheleleyo Sokwenza Isithuba"

Kunyaka olandelayo, kwi Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (esoloko ibizwa Brown II [), iNkundla yathetha ngembambano yokuzalisekisa. Kunokuyalela ngoko nangoko, inkundla eyayalela iinkundla ezisezantsi ukuba zifune ukususwa kwequmrhu "ngesantya sangabom". Olu lwimi ludityaniswa ukunikezela ngexesha laMazantsi ukutshintsha. Ngoko ke, lwavumela abalawuli ukuba balubambezele ukuthobela iminyaka emininzi, ukuba amashumi eminyaka.

Amaphondo aseMazantsi aphendula ngoko kwathi kwaziwa ngokuba yi-"Massive Resistance". Amanye amaphondo adlulisa imithetho evala izikolo kunokuba azicalucalulo. Amanye asungule iinkqubo ze-tuation anika iinkqubo zokuxhasa izikolo zangasese, ezicalucalucalulweyo. Isithembiso somgaqo-siseko se Brown ifuna ukuba kunyanzeliswe amadabi angakumbi asemthethweni.

Ukuphelisa Ikhethe: Izigqibo Eziyintloko Zenkundla Ephakamileyo

Kumashumi eminyaka alandela Brown, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yakhupha uthotho lwezigqibo ezacacisa umlinganiselo wembopheleleko yomgaqo-siseko wokususa izikolo. Le mithetho yandisa ukufikelela kwe-Olincible Protection Clause yaza yanika iinkundla zesizwe igunya lokuzalisekisa izicwangciso ze-deseasurensition.

Cooper v. Aaron (58)

Emva kwengxaki eCentral High School eLittle Rock, Arkansas, apho iRhuluneli uOrval Faubus yasebenzisa khona uRhulumente wesizwe ukuvala abafundi abantsundu ukuba bangangeni esikolweni, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yakhupha isiqinisekiso esinamandla sokugunyaziswa kwegunya lezwe. Cooper v. UAaron, iNkundla yavumelana ukuba amagosa karhulumente akanakukwazi ukuvala imiyalelo yenkundla yesizwe. Isigqibo saqinisekisa ukuba uMgaqo-siseko ngumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe kwaye ukuchasa kukarhulumente ukurhoxa kwedese-avPrion yayingumphalitio.

Ibhodi yeSikolo seSithili saseGreenland (1968)

Kwi Luluhlaza-luhlaza v. Ibhodi yeSikolo sephondo leNew Kent, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yala i "inkululeko yokuzikhethela" isicwangciso esingazange siphumeze intsingiselo yokukhupha intlalo-ntle. INkundla yaqinisekisa ukuba iibhodi zesikolo zazinomsebenzi wokuvuma ukuphelisa zonke iingcambu ze-livsion "root nesebe"." Esi sigqibo saphawula ukuguquka ukusuka ekunqandeni nje ukungavumelani i-paration ukuya kukufuna ngokukhuthele ukudityaniswa.

ISwann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971)

isigqibo siphendula umbandela wonyango. INkundla yaxhasa ukusetyenziswa kodula njengesixhobo sokufumana umlinganiselo wobuhlanga ezikolweni. IJaji enkulu uWarren Burger ibhala ukuba ukubhabha yayiyindlela evunyelweyo yeenkqubo zesikolo eziphehliweyo, ingakumbi kwimimandla apho indawo yokuhlala isomelezwe ngemithetho yediski.

Millaven v. Bradley (1974)

Ngokwahlukileyo kwimithetho eninzi yasemva konyaka ka-1960 nasekuqaleni konyaka ka1970, isigqibo sakhupha umlinganiselo omkhulu wemida yephondo emhlophe kwimiyalelo yedecvolation . Inkundla yagqiba kwelokuba icebo lokususa izalathiso zesikolo azinakufuna ukuba zithathe inxaxheba ngaphandle kokuba ezo phondo zazibandakanyeke kucalucalulo lwequlo. Esi sigqibo sayifaka ngokunempumelelo imimandla emininzi yemimandla emhlophe ekwimimandla esemaphandleni ukusuka kwimiyalelo yedecolonic, ishiya imimandla yeso sixeko enabafundi abambalwa kakhulu. [5][5][5] i-milton v[FLT].[FLT][FLT:[5][FLT][5][5][FLT6][5][5]

UMgaqo-siseko noMgaqo-siseko weNtlalo-ntle

Phezu kwako nje ukoyisa komgaqo-siseko kwixesha lamalungelo abantu, izikolo ezininzi zaseMerika namhlanje zihlala zingenamkhethe. Ingxelo esuka kwi-ofisi kaRhulumente ifumanise ukuba abafundi abangaphezu kwesithathu bafunda kwizikolo apho abangaphezu kwama-75 ekhulwini bequmrhu labafundi bohlanga olunye okanye ubuhlanga. Olu hlanga luqhutywa ludityanisiwe zizinto: ukubala, ukutshintsha inani, ukuqulunqwa kwemithetho yenkundla elungelelanisiweyo, nokungaqiniseki okukhulayo kwenkundla yenkundla yetyala, kunye nokungaqiniseki kweNkundla Ephakamileyo ukuba iqwalasele ibala lohlanga kwisabelo sesikolo.

Abazali Ababandakanyekileyo Kwizikolo Zoluntu n/A. Seattle (2007)

Isigqibo sowama-2007 Abazali ababandakanyekileyo kwizikolo zoluntu . ku--.ISithili seSeattle No. 1[FT:1] sathiya ngakumbi ukudida umgaqo-siseko. INkundla yasilela iiplani zesikolo zokuzithandela ezasebenzisa uhlanga njengenkalo yokufumana intlukwano, ibambe ukuba ezo zicwangciso zaphula umthetho woKhuselo olulinganayo luka-Celas. IJaji eyintloko uJohn Roberts wabhala ukuba "indlela yokuphelisa ucalucalulo ngokwesiseko sohlanga kukuyeka ukugxeka ngesiseko sohlanga" esi sisigqibo sawo sakuthi isithi imimandla yesikolo isebenzise amandla okuthatha amanyathelo asebenzayo okugcina umanyano.

Isiphelo seNkundla eGciniweyo

Ukususela kwiminyaka yoo1990, iinkundla zezorhulumente zaqalisa ukuvakalisa isithili sezikolo "imanyano," ithetha ukuba zishenxise zonke izinsalela zokwahlula-hlula ukusa kumlinganiselo ofanelekileyo. Xa isithili savakaliswa njengesaseburhulumenteni, inkundla yaphela. Amakhulu esithili ezikolo kulo lonke elo lizwe akhululwa kwimiyalelo yokungahlangani, kwaye amaninzi abona ukubuyela kwimiqathango yokubhalisa engakumbi engekho mthethweni. Umgaqo-siseko owawucebise ukuba usebenze deseclinikin (iiinkulu elisebenzayo) wathatyathelwe ngumqwalaseli ojongenelo olunzulu kwityala.

Iimpikiswano zomGaqo-siseko Zemigudu Yokwahlulwa Kwezi Zithuba

Phezu kwazo nje ezi zithintelo, umGaqo-siseko uyaqhubeka unika iziqinisekiso ezisemthethweni zomanyano. Abaxhasi baphikisa ngelithi i-Livingle Elinganayo yoKhuselo luka-Claus ayikwaleli konke ukuqwalaselwa kohlanga, kodwa lucalulo olunentsingiselo. Bakhomba kuncedo olunyanzelisayo lukarhulumente kwizinto ezahlukeneyo, okokuqala oluqwalaselwe yiNkundla ePhakamileyo kwiimeko zokufundisa eziphezulu ezifana . I-Bollinger [2003]. Imimandla yesikolo iye yayila iinjongo zokuzibandakanya ezisekelwe ezisekelwe kwinkangeleko zezenteko, ezinokuthi zifumane ukwahlukahlukana kobuhlanga ngaphandle kokuxhokonxa ingqwa phantsi kwe-Active protection Clavice.

Ukongezelela, isiqinisekiso somGaqo-siseko sokuxhasa inkxaso elinganayo yeengxoxo ezithi kufuneka zithethe ingcaciso yokungavumelani kwemigaqo-nkqubo yezindlu ezibuhlanga. Uphando lubonise ukuba ukwahlulwa kwesikolo kunxulumene ngokusondeleyo neendawo zokuhlala, eziye zabunjwa ngamashumi eminyaka zinkqubo zikarhulumente ezinjengokuthamba nokubhaliswa kwemithetho. Abanye abaphengululi abasemthethweni baphikisa ngelithi umGaqo-siseko ufuna ukuba kulungiswe ezi mpawu ze-paration, kwanokuba azibangelwanga ngqo ziibhodi zesikolo.

Indima yomGaqo-siseko kaRhulumente

Ngeli xesha umGaqo-siseko wezwe unika isiseko sokhuseleko olulinganayo, umgaqo-siseko wesizwe ukwaye wadlala indima ebalulekileyo ekulweni isikolo. Umgaqo-siseko omninzi worhulumente uquka iziqinisekiso ezicacileyo zomgangatho wemfundo okanye ukulingana okudlula kumgangatho worhulumente. Kwiimeko ezifana Abott v. I-Burke eNew Jersey kunye ] USerrano v. [ umfundisi wesizwe] eKhalifoniyase , urhulumente uthelekele kwimimiselo yesizwe ukuze alungele ukubonelelana kwenkxaso yemali yesikolo kunye nezibonelelo zesikolo.

Ukusetyenziswa komthetho-siseko worhulumente noworhulumente kudala umgaqo-siseko ontsonkothileyo. Kwamanye amazwe, abalawuli baye basebenzisa ngokunempumelelo umgaqo-siseko wombuso ukucel ’ umngeni ukwahluka okuchaphazela ngokungenakulinganiswa inkxaso-mali echaphazela abafundi bemibala. Ezi meko zibonisa ukuba umGaqo-siseko, ngengqiqo yawo ebanzi, uhlala uluxwebhu oluphilayo olukwaziyo ukuqhelanisa nokuqonda okutsha kokulingana nokusesikweni.

Iimpikiswano Eziqhubekayo: Ukukholelwa Kwimfundiso Yoqobo, UmGaqo-siseko Ophilayo, Nekamva Lokwahlulwa Kwamaqela

Ingxoxo yomgaqo-siseko emalunga nentlanga-ntle yesikolo ibonisa ukungavisisani okunzulu ngendlela umGaqo-siseko omele utolikwe ngayo. Abaxhasi boqobo baphikisa ngelithi intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko yayimiselwe ngexesha lokwahlulwa kwemiqathango nokuba uKhuselo olulinganayo lukaClaus lwalungajongwanga ukunqanda ukwahlukana. Imigaqo yemithetho elawula isiseko ithetha ukuba imigaqo ebanzi kufuneka iguquke ukuze ihlangabezane neemeko ezitshintshayo zentlalo-ntlalo, kwaye Brown ngokwayo] yayiyiyo ukuphenduka kwiinjongo zantlalo.

Ezi mpikiswano zicacisayo zineziphumo ezibalulekileyo. Uninzi lweNkundla ePhakamileyo lubonise ukungaqiniseki ngemigaqo-nkqubo yesizwe engaziqondiyo kwaye luye lwanciphisa umlinganiselo wamandla omthetho womthetho kwimfundo. Okwangoku, amanye amazwe aye athabatha inyathelo lokuzimela, aphumele imithetho ekhuthaza ukudibana okanye, kwezinye iimeko, ethintela imfundiso yembali yobuhlanga. Ikamva lemfundo yesikolo lihlala lingaqiniseki, kodwa umbhalo nembali yomGaqo-siseko iyaqhubeka inika igunya nempembelelo kwabo bafuna ukulingana.

Isiphelo: Idinga elihlala lihleli lomGaqo-siseko

UmGaqo-siseko waseUnited States ubesisixhobo esingundoqo esisemthethweni kumzabalazo wokuphelisa izikolo zaseMelika. Ukusuka ekuhlaziyweni kwakhona ukuya ku- Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[ nangaphaya kwayo, umGaqo-siseko uye wagunyazisa umlo wokulingana kwesizwe kumthetho osisiseko wesizwe. Kodwa eli bali lide lide lide liphele. I-lifecrence yesikolo iyaqhubekeka, kwaye imibuzo emitsha engokwasemthethweni neyomgaqo-siseko iyaqhubeka iphakama.

Indima yomGaqo-siseko ekuququzelelweni kohlanga asiyombali nje. Ihlala iyinkqubo ephilayo apho abaxhasi, abafundisi, kunye nabenzi benkqubo kufuneka basebenze khona. I-Weamente Protection Claus, iSupremacy Claus, kunye nemigaqo yesakhiwo solawulo lwamaqumrhu konke kubumba amathuba okudibana. Njengoko uhlanga luqhubeka luphikisana ngendlela yokuzalisekisa isithembiso Brown, uMgaqo-siseko ngokungathandabuzekiyo uza kuhlala embindini wencoko.

Uhambo olusuka "ekwahluleni kodwa olulinganayo" ukuya "ngesantya sangabom" ukuya kumhla wethu lubonisa ukuba utshintsho lomgaqo-siseko lucotha, lukhuphiswano, kwaye alunasiqinisekiso. Kodwa umGaqo-siseko uzingqine unakho ukukhula nokucaciswa kwakhona. Uhlala, kumazwi oMgwebi uHarlan, umpumla imibala kwiminqweno yawo ukuba awusoloko usebenza. Umsebenzi wokwenza idesecornism ngumsebenzi wokwenza ezo minqweno zokwenene.