Intlangano Yokuzikhusela Nokupheliswa Kobukhoboka

Umbutho wokuphelisa, owafumana inkqubela ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane ye-19, wafuna ukuphelisa ubukhoboka eUnited States. Iingcali zomthetho njengoFrederick Douglas noHarriet Tubman zaluncedo ekukhuliseni ukuphaphamisa nokukhuthaza amalungelo abantu base-Afrika. Umsebenzi wabo wabeka isiseko seenguqu ezisisiseko ezingokwasemthethweni ezaziza kuphinda zihlaziywe ilizwe.

Frederick Douglas, owayesakuba likhoboka elathi laba ngumlamli okhokelayo nombhali, wapapasha ii-autobiography eziliqela ezichaza amava akhe. [[FLT: 0] Unarrative of the Life of Frederick Douglas, ikhoboka laseMelika (1845)) wafikelela kubantu bezizwe ngezizwe zonke kwaye wabhenca inkohlakalo yesi siko. Harriet Tubman, ngelishwa, wakhokela imisebenzi emininzi ukuhlangula abantu abakhotyo nge-ultray Railroad, ebonisa amandla esenzo esingqalileyo kunye nesakhiwo sothungelwano.

Le nkqubo ikwaxhomekeke kwimingeni engokwasemthethweni kunye nokulungelelaniswa kwezobupolitika. I-American Anti- Moderry Society, eyasekwa ngo-1833, izicelo ezilungelelanisiweyo, iintetho, kunye neempapasho. Nangona iNkundla ePhakamileyo yowe-1857 .Dred Scott v. Sandford isigqibo sakhanyelwa ukuba ngummi waseAfrika, unobangela wokuphelisa umkhosi saqhubeka. Unyulo luka Abraham Lincoln ngo1860, lwalandelwa yimfazwe yamakhaya, lwadala iimeko zokuguqula umthetho.

IiNkqutyana eziPhambili zoMgaqo-nkqubo

  • Ukutyhilwa kweNkqutyana (1863)[FLT: [Umthetho olawulayo]: Ikhutshwe nguMongameli Lincoln, lo myalelo ulawulayo wavakalisa inkululeko kumagunya amakhoboka kumazwe azimeleyo. Nangona ilinganiselwe kumlinganiselo okhawulezileyo, yayisusa injongo yemfazwe yaza yavumela amaMelika aseAfrika ukuba akhonze kuMkhosi we-Union.
  • 13th Amendment (1865): Ngokusesikweni wabuphelisa ubukhoboka kulo lonke elaseUnited States, ngaphandle kwesohlwayo solwaphulo-mthetho. Oku kupheliswa kwaba ngumphumo ngqo wokwenza inkqubo yokupheliswa kwemiqathango kunye noloyiso lwe-Union.
  • 14th Amendment (1868): Ukuba ngummi kwabo bonke abantu abazelwe okanye abadaliweyo e-U.S., kuquka ababengamakhoboka, kwaye beqinisekisa ukhuseleko olulinganayo phantsi kwemithetho. Eli binzana laba lisiseko samalungelo oluntu exesha elizayo.
  • 15th Amendment (1870): yabonisa ukukhanyelwa kwamalungelo okuvota ngenxa yebala, umbala, okanye imeko yobukhoboka yangaphambili. Nangona ukunyanzeliswa komthetho-siseko kwakubuthathaka phantse inkulungwane, kwamisela umgaqo-siseko.

Ukupheliswa kwale ntlangano kwabonisa ukuba ukulawulwa kwemithetho engokwasemthethweni nokulawulwa kwezobupolitika ngokuqhubekayo kwakunokukoyisa ukungekho sikweni okungqongqo, kodwa umzabalazo wokulingana kokwenene wawusekude uphele.

Intshukumo Embi Yamabhinqa

Umbutho wamabhinqa oweyisayo walwela ilungelo lamabhinqa lokuvota, ophumela ekudluleni koMphetho-mda we-19 1920. Iinkokeli ezifana noSusan B. Anthony noElizabeth Cady Stanton zabhala amaphecana, kunye neBhunga eliqeqeshiweyo ukuze zikhusele eli lungelo lisisiseko. Lo mbutho wavela kwiqela elilawula ukupheliswa kwencindiswano, njengoko amabhinqa amaninzi aqonda ukuba nawo ayengenalo igunya kwezobupolitika.

Ngonyaka we-1848, iNgqungquthela yeeFalls yeSeneca yaphawula ukuqala kombutho wamalungelo wamabhinqa olungelelanisiweyo. Isaziso sendibano se-Sentiments , efuziselwe kwiSibhengezo se-Imprence, yadwelisa izikhalazo nxamnye nemithetho eyayingaphantsi kwamabhinqa. Kumashumi eminyaka alandelayo, abaxhasi bemfazwe basebenzisa amaqhinga amaninzi: amaqela omgangatho karhulumente, i-ligiod, kunye nolwaphulo-mthetho lwamanye amaxesha.

Iziganeko eziphambili

  • Imanyano yesizwe yaMany Sfuffenge Intlangano yeNational Woman Sfuffge (NWSA) kunye neAmerican Woman Suffnge Association (AWSA): Le mibutho, kamva yadityaniswa kwiNational Woman Suffnge Association, ilungelelanisa imigudu kulo lonke ilizwe.
  • Ingingqi yeWyoming (1869): Igunya lokuqala lokunika amabhinqa amalungelo okuvota apheleleyo, ukumisela umzekelo kwamanye amazwe.
  • yango1919th Amendment (1920)[FLT:]: Emva kwamashumi eminyaka ephulo kunye nokuguquka okubalulekileyo koluvo lukawonke wonke ebudeni beMfazwe Yehlabathi I, inguquko yavunywa. Yathi: “Ilungelo labemi baseUnited States lokuvota alisayi kukhanyelwa okanye livalelwe nguUnited States okanye nguRhulumente othelelwayo ngenxa yesondo.”

Umbutho okhuthazayo awuzange unikezele nje kuphela ivoti kumabhinqa kodwa wakwamisela nemigaqo yenyathelo lokulingana kwesini sexesha elizayo. Yabonisa ukuba utshintsho lomgaqo-siseko lwalunokwenzeka ngoxinzelelo oluqhubekayo lwengca kunye nesakhiwo esimanyeneyo kwimimandla nakwiindidi. Impumelelo yoMphetho-mda we-19 kamva ikhuthaza ukufuna intlawulo elinganayo, amalungelo okuzala, kunye nokukhuselwa ngokusemthethweni nxamnye nocalucalulo lwesini.

IMbutho yaMalungelo yaBantwana (1950s-1960)

I-Civil Rights Movement of the 1950 ne-1960 ijolise ekupheliseni ucalucalulo lobuhlanga kunye nocalucalulo kuma-Afrika. Amanani angundoqo anjengoMartin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, noMalcolm X avela ngeli xesha, ekhuthaza ukulingana ngemibhiyozo yoxolo, imingeni engomthetho, kwaye kwezinye iimeko, izama ukulwa. Iqela layiphelisa inkqubo ka-Jim Crow yemithetho esemthethweni eqhubeka ukususela ekupheleni kwe-Reconstanton.

Uloyiso Lwangaphambili Nokuphumelela Ngokusemthethweni

Phambi kokuqhankqalaza koo1960, iNaACP Legal Defense Fund, ekhokelwa nguThur Good Marshall, wasebenzisa iqhinga elisemthethweni lokuvavanya umahluko. Ityala lesazinge ngo 1954 Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yeTopeka yavakalisa ukuba “ezi zikolo zasekuhlaleni kodwa ezilinganayo” zazingalingani ngokwemvelo, zibhukuqa i-1896 Pnelsby v. isigqibo.

IMontgomery Bus Boycott ka-1956 yayisenzeko esibalulekileyo esabonisa amandla esenzo sokusebenza ngokumanyeneyo. Emva kokuba uRosa Park engavumi ukunikezela, ingingqi yaseAfrika yawalahla amabhasi esixeko ngaphezu konyaka. Ibhedu lenqanawa yaphela kuphela xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo yalawula ukuba ibhasi ayisetyenziswa njengequmrhu. Oko kwabangela ukuba uMartin Luther King Jr.

Umthetho omkhulu notshintsho lomGaqo-siseko

  • Umthetho weCivil Amalungelo owe-1942: ucalulo olucalulwe ngokusekelwe kuhlanga, imibala, unqulo, isini, okanye imvelaphi yesizwe kwizindlu zikawonke-wonke, umsebenzi, kunye neenkqubo ezixhaswa ngurhulumente.
  • Umthetho wovotelo wamaLungelo ka 1965: Iimvavanyo zokufunda nokubhala kunye nezinye iindlela ezisetyenziselwa ukudibanisa abantu base-Afrika. Kwafuna amagunya athile nembali yocalulo ukuze kufumane imvume karhulumente phambi kokutshintsha imithetho yokuvota ( Ukuqulunqa 5 ngaphambi kokuba i-preculance). Oku kwenza ulwandiso lwevota olumnyama kunye nokuthatha inxaxheba kwezobupolitika kuMzantsi.
  • Umthetho weFair Houses ka1968: ucalucalulo oluthenjiweyo kuthengiso, ukuqeshwa, kunye nemali yezindlu ezisekelwe kuhlanga, kunqulo, kwimvelaphi yesizwe, kunye (kamva) nesiphene. Oku kwalandela ukubulawa komcimbi uKing Luther Jr. kwaye kwaba yinxalenye yomgudu omkhulu wokuthetha ngokungalingani kwesixokelelwano kwizindlu nakwimimandla.

Ilifa leli qela liyaqhubeka liphembelela iingxoxo zanamhlanje zohlanga nokulingana eMerika.

IMbutho yamalungelo eLGBTQ+

I-LGBTQ+ amalungelo aye alwela ukuqashelwa nokukhuselwa kocalulo. Iziganeko zephawu lwelizwe ezifana ne-Stonewall Riots ngo1969 zawafaka igalelo lokulingana, nto leyo eyakhokelela kwinkqubela engokomthetho ephawulekayo ukutyhubela amashumi eminyaka. Ngaphambi ko Stonellall, izenzo zobufanasini zaye zasohlwaywa kumazwe amaninzi, kwaye abantu bajamelana nokuphulukana nomsebenzi, ukugxothwa, nokukhathazwa ngamapolisa.

Emva kwe-Stonewall, LGBTQ+ abaxhasi basungula imibutho enjengeGay Liberation Front kunye neCandelo lamaLungelo Loluntu. Basebenzisa iindlela ezisuka kumalungelo abantu kunye nemibutho elwa nemfazwe, kuquka imiboniso kawonke-wonke, ukukhuthaza, kunye neengxaki ezingokwasemthethweni. Ii-1970 zabona impumelelo yangaphambili: ezinye izixeko zaphumelela ngokwemithetho engaguquguqukiyo, kunye neZiko leMelika eliNdebethi yePsychiatric lasusa ubufana kwiingxaki zengqondo zoluhlu lwazo.

Uphumelele Okungundoqo Kwasemthethweni

  • LAWREnce v. Texas (2003): INkundla ePhakamileyo yabetha phantsi imithetho yesodoma, ikhupha ucalucalulo olufanayo-lusebenza ngokugqithisileyo ngokwesondo kwilizwe lonke. Esi sigqibo sayiguqula imeko ye-1986 Bowers v. Hardweck[ yaqinisekisa ilungelo lokuba yimfihlo.
  • United States v. Windsor (2013): INkundla yagqiba kwelokuba urhulumente wesizwe kufuneka aqaphele imitshato efanayo-yokuziphatha ngokwesini eyenzeka ngokusemthethweni ngokweemeko ezibavumelayo. Oku kwawisa phantsi ilungiselelo elingundoqo lokhuselo loMthetho womtshato (DOMA).
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Inkundla ePhakamileyo yathi izibini ezitshatileyo ezingokwabelana ngesondo zinelungelo elisisiseko lokutshata phantsi koMphetho-mva weshumi elinesine. Esi sigqibo somqondiso senza umtshato ulingana nomthetho welizwe, oloyiso olukhulu emva kwamashumi eminyaka esenzo sobuProfini.
  • Bostock v. Clayton County (2020): INkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba kwelokuba iSihlomelo VII soMthetho waMalungelo kaNovil wowe-1964, olwalela ucalulo lwesini emsebenzini, ikwakhusela ukucalucalulo olusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesini nakukwazi ukuba neentlobano zesini.

Ngapha koko, lo mbutho uye wasebenzela ukukhusela iindawo zokuhlala, zokunyamekela impilo, neendawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke. Umthetho ofana noMthetho we-Eature (obekwe ngokuphindaphindiweyo kwiBhunga) uzama ukuqinisekisa ukukhusela okucacileyo kweLGBTQ+ amaMerika kumgangatho worhulumente.

Iqela lamalungelo angaqhelekanga neADA

Umbutho wamalungelo esiphene, owafumana ukubonakala kwiminyaka yee-1970, walwa nokuhlahlelana kwabantu, ukuhlahlela nokucalucalula. Ukwakha ngemibutho yangaphambili, abaxhasi abakhubazekileyo babefuna ukufikelela kwimfundo, umsebenzi, izithuthi zikawonke-wonke, nezakhiwo. Imigudu yabo yafikelela kwinkqubela yeyona mithetho yamalungelo abantu ebanzi kwelo lizwe.

IiNkqutyana eziPhambili

  • Ukukhetha 504 kuMthetho wokubuyisa ityala ka 1973: ucalulo olucetywe nxamnye nabantu abaneziphene kwiinkqubo ezixhaswa ngurhulumente. ICandelo lama-504 lihlala-ngaphakathi--------lide kakhulu elathi lenzeka kwisakhiwo se-San Francisco solawulo. /_iphonononge urhulumente ukuzalisekisa umthetho.
  • Abantu abanoMthetho wemfundo owenziwe ngesiphene (IDEA) (1975): baqinisekiswe ukuba bafumana imfundo kawonke-wonke efanelekileyo kubantwana abaneziphene, ukuqinisekisa ukuba bangaya kwizikolo ezikwizikolo ezikhulu ezinenkxaso eziyimfuneko.
  • AmaMelika anoMthetho we-ICF oKhubazekayo (ADA) (1990): ucalulo oluchaphazelekayo kubantu abaneziphene emsebenzini, iindawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke, ezothutho, ezorhulumente kunye neenkonzo zonxibelelwano. Imodeli ye-ADA “yokuhlala ngokufanelekileyo” nokususwa kwemiqobo yokwakha imisela umgangatho wehlabathi lonke.
  • UMthetho wokuHlaziya (2008): Wandisa intsingiselo yesiphene ukubuyisela intelekelelo kubantu abachazwa ngokunzima kakhulu ziinkundla, ukuqinisekisa ukuba ukhuseleko lwe-ADA lwahlala luqinile.

Umbutho wamalungelo okukhubazeka waphumelela iimpumelelo ezibalulekileyo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo, ezifana ne- Olmstead v. L.C. (1999), eyayikholelwa ukuba ukungabi nasizathu kwabantu abaneziphene kuyayichasa i-ADA. Lo mthetho wakhuthaza iinkonzo ezisekelwe kuluntu kumaziko okuziko.

Amalungelo Abemi Bomthonyama baseMerika Nolongamo

Uluntu lwamaMelika amaIndiya luye lwalwela amalungelo alo ukususela ekuthotyelweni kwelizwe. Inkulungwane yama-20 yabona iimpumelelo ezingundoqo ezingokwasemthethweni ezinxulumene nolawulo lwesizwe, ukuzilawula, nokulondolozwa kwenkcubeko. UMthetho we-Indian Citizenship wango-1924 wanika amaMelika ubumi base-U.S. kodwa amazwe amaninzi ayesawathintela ekuvoteleni de kube ngowe-1950 okanye kamva.

I-American Indian Movement (AIM) eyasekwa ngowe-1968, igxininisa kumalungelo esivumelwano, inkohlakalo yamapolisa, kunye nokusesikweni kwezoqoqosho. Ingxubusho enjengendawo yokuphatha i-Alcatraz (1 969) kunye nokurhoxa eWounded Knee (1973) yazisa ingqalelo yesizwe kwiimbambano zolo hlanga.

Inkqubela Esemthethweni

  • I-Indian Ulf-Ditection and Education Act (19975) : Izizwe ezivumelekileyo ukuqhuba iinkqubo zikarhulumente ebezilawulwa yiBreau of Indian Affairs, zikhuthaza ukuzilawula.
  • Umthetho weIndian Child Welfare (1988): Ufuna ukugcina abantwana bamaIndiya beneentsapho zamaNandal, ethetha ngoqheliso lwembali lokususa abantwana kwizikolo ezihlalwayo okanye amakhaya okukhulisela kuwo.
  • Act e-American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (1990): Kufunwa amaqumrhu orhulumente kunye neemyuziyam zelizwe ukubuyisela amathumbu kunye nezinto zenkcubeko kwinzala nezizwe zomnombo woluntu lwamaMelika oMdabi.

Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, i-Spig Rock (2017) yokuqhankqalaza (66-2017) kwiDakota Access Pipeline eqhubekayo ibalaselisa imizabalazo yokukhusela ubuncwane bamanzi kunye namazwe ezivumelwano, ngelixa iNkundla ePhakamileyo McGirt v. Oklahoma (2020) iqinisekisa ukuba ininzi lwempuma Oklahoma ihlala ihleli kwilizwe le-Infrive Merika elihlala abantu abahlala bebonke ngenjongo zolawulo lolwaphulo-mthetho.

Iintsebenziswano Zangexesha Nekamva Lomgangatho Osemthethweni

Nangona kukho inkqubela ebalulekileyo, iingxaki zisaqhubeka zifuna ukulingana ngokusemthethweni. Iingxoxo ezifana nokucinezelwa kwabavoti, inkohlakalo kunye nocalucalulo kumaqela aphantsi kolawulo ziyaqhubeka. Imibutho emitsha iye yavela ukuze icombulule ezi ngxaki zenkqubo, ngokufuthi isekelwe kwizifundo zembali.

Ubomi Obumnyama Bubalulekile Notshintsho Olumanyumnyezi

Iqaliswe ngo-2013 emva kokuxolelwa kukaGeorge Zimmerman ekudubulisweni kukaTraevon Martin, Black Lives Matter (BLM) iye yaba ngumkhosi okhokelayo nxamnye nogonyamelo lobuhlanga kunye nokuziphatha okubi kwamapolisa. Lo mbutho usebenzisa ucwangciso lwemivo, isenzo esingqalileyo, kunye nomgaqo-nkqubo ukunyanzelisa ukuphenduliswa kwetyala. Emva kokubulawa kukaGeorge Floyd ngo-2020, iBLM yanceda ekunyanzeleni iBrekhom Congress Congress uGeorge Floyd Justice ePolicial Act, nangona isiving. Urhulumente kunye notshintsho lwasekuhlaleni `okluthiwe kukuvalwa kwemiqathango yeming, iimfuno zekhamera, kunye nolawulo lwequm.

Ukugxininisa kwale ntlangano ekudibaniseni intlalo - ntle kukwabonisa ukuba uhlanga, udidi, isini nesini sikwinkqubo efanayo yengcinezelo.

Ukuncomela Amalungelo Ngenkulungwane Yama - 21

Emva kwesigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yowama-2013 iShelby County v. Iqela lenqanawa libethe iCandelo lesine loMthetho wamaLungelo, ogqiba ukuba yeyiphi imithetho efuna ukwenziwa kwangaphambi koshicilelo, amazwe amaninzi awiswe imithetho ye-Id ethintelayo, ukuqokelela indawo evaliweyo, kunye nokucocwa komqulu. Amaqela e-Advocacy alwe olu nguqulelo ngomgaqo-wo-womgatho. UJohn Lewis Voing Reties Act Act (Umthetho owenziwe ngeentlanganiso ezininzi) azimisele ukubuyisela nokucoca indlela yokuvota.

Amalungelo afudukayo ne-DACA

Umbutho wamalungelo ondwendwelo unyanzele utshintsho olubanzi, ukhuseleko lwamaDayers, kunye nesiphelo sokwahlukana kwentsapho. Inkqubo yeDefered Action for Childhoomes (DACA) emiselwe ngumyalelo wempatho-mbimbi ngo-2012, inike ukukhululeka kokwexeshana ekugxothweni kwabaselula abangaphezu kwama-80 000. Imingeni esemthethweni e-DACA iyaqhubeka, nabaxhasi bayo bafuna isisombululo somthetho esisisigxina.

Le nkampani ithetha ngokuxhatshazwa kwemisebenzi, iimeko zokuvalelwa, nokufikelela kwisiluleko esisemthethweni. Izivumelwano phakathi komntu ovela kwelinye ilizwe, omnyama, kunye namaqela asebenzayo ziye zomeleza izicelo zokufuduka okuthe kwaphela nokuqhelekileyo.

Isiphelo

Imibutho yamalungelo abantu ukutyhubela imbali yaseMelika iye yaluguqula kakhulu ulungiso olusemthethweni lwesizwe, ikhuthaza ukulingana nokusesikweni. Umbutho ngamnye uye wakha kwimpumelelo nezifundo zabanduleli bawo, wadala isithethe esinentsingiselo sobungangamsha esiqhubeka siphembelela izizukulwana ezizayo. Ukusuka ekuphelisweni kobukhoboka ukuya ekuqwalaselweni komtshato, ukusuka kwi-ADA ukuya kutsho kumlo wangoku wokuvota, umjikelo wembali ujongene nezenzo eziqhubekayo zokusesikweni, imingeni esemthethweni, kunye nenkalipho yabantu abaqhelekileyo abafuna ukuphathwa njengabemi abapheleleyo. Ukuqonda le migaqo akusokuze ihlonele kuphela ukulingana kodwa kuxhobisa umsebenzi wokwakha amalungelo angenakulinganiswa nasemthethweni eMelika.