Ukwazisa: Ukugweba Umhlaba

Inkqubo yokugweba yakha isiseko salo naliphi na ibutho ledemokhrasi, kodwa ukuntsonkotha kwalo kudla ngokushiya abafundi beziva betyhwatyhwe ngako. Ukuqonda indlela yokuhamba kwiinkundla akuyonto nje efundiswayo, kwaye kuyabanika amandla abemi ukuba babandakanyeke ngokunentsingiselo nomthetho baze baqonde indlela okusesikweni okuxhaswa ngayo. Ukusuka ekuqukumbeleni kokuqala kwemimiselo ebalaseleyo yeNkundla Ephakamileyo, inyathelo ngalinye kwinkqubo yokugweba lisebenza umsebenzi okhethekileyo nobalulekileyo.

Olu khokelo lwandisiweyo lunika uhambo olubanzi, olulandela inyathelo ngecala ukudlula kwinkqubo yenkundla. Enoba ungumfundi olungiselela uvavanyo lwamaqumrhu, umfundisi-mfundo oyila uludwe lwenkqubo, okanye nje umfundi onomdla wokwazi, eli nqaku lizakukuxhobisa ngolwazi lokuqhuba iinkundla ngentembelo. Siza kuhlola umaleko ngamnye wejaji, sihlolisise indima ebalulekileyo yomelo olusemthethweni, kwaye sinike iingcebiso ezisebenzisekayo kwinkundla yenkundla e-scleat-/all xa sibalase imigaqo ekhusela ubulungisa kunye nomthetho.

Ukuqonda Inkqubo Yenkundla: Umsebenzi Obalulekileyo

Iinkundla eUnited States(e) kwaye kumazwe amaninzi omthetho oqhelekileyo `alungelelaniswe kwiqela labefundisi elinamanqanaba amathathu. Esi sakhiwo siqinisekisa ukuba amatyala akha avakala kuqala kumgangatho osondeleyo, ngoko aphinda ajongwe iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni, kwaye ekugqibeleni, ukuba kuyimfuneko, agqitywe ligunya eliphezulu. Amaqondo amathathu angundoqo ngala:

  • [[UMTL: 0] IiNkundla zeNtloko eziBanzi – Inqaku lokungena apho izibakala ziqinisekiswe khona kwaye imigaqo yokuqala yenziwa khona.
  • [[UMTL:0] Inkundla ezifakelweyo – iinkundla ze-Internate ezihlola izigqibo zenkundla ezigwetyelwe iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni.
  • IiNkundla zeNtloko eziPhakamileyo – Inkundla yeenguqulelo zokugqibela, enemithetho emisela imizekelo enyanzelisayo.

Umgangatho ngamnye unolawulo olwahlukileyo. Juridiction ibhekisela kwigunya inkundla kufuneka ivane uhlobo oluthile lwetyala] elibandakanya umthetho wesizwe, umthetho, ulawulo, isixa esithile sedola, okanye umba othile. Umzekelo, inkundla yesithili isingatha amatyala abandakanya imimiselo karhulumente okanye imibuzo yezomgaqo-siseko, ngelixa inkundla evavanya imicimbi efana noqhawulo-mtshato, izivumelwano zombutho, kunye netyala lolwaphulo-mthetho phantsi komthetho worhulumente.

Ukuqonda eli qela liphambili linyathelo lokuqala lokuqonda indlela impikiswano enye engokwasemthethweni enokusuka kwinkundla yasekuhlaleni iye kweyona iphakamileyo kwisihlalo selizwe.

Inyathelo 1: Ukuqalisa Kwinkundla Yetyala

Inkundla yamatyala kulapho uninzi lwempikiswano zomthetho luqala khona luze luphele khona. Kuphela komgangatho apho iijaji zidla ngokuva ubungqina zize zinikezele izigwebo. Apha, inkqubo yokugweba iyatyhilwa: amacala amabini anikela iingxelo ezingqubanayo zezibakala, kunye nomfumani wenyaniso wobundili (umgwebi okanye umgwebi) umisela oko kunokwenzeka ngokwenene. Amacandelo angundoqo etyala lenkundla yokuvavanya aquka:

  • Ichaza i-Scoart: I-Placttiff (umbutho ozisa isuti) uxwebhu olusesikweni oluchaza iingxelo zomthetho kunye nentelekelelo efunwayo. Olu xwebhu kufuneka luchaze isiseko solawulo lwenkundla kunye nezityholo eziyinyaniso ezixhasa intelekelelo nganye.
  • Impendulo: [ Ummangalelwa uphendula kwisikhalazo, ngokuqheleke ngokuvuma okanye ngokukhanyela ityholo ngalinye nokuphakamisa naziphi na iindlela zokuzikhusela. Ukuba ummangalelwa akakwazi ukuphendula ngexesha, ugwebo olungagqibekanga lungangeniswa.
  • Intsingiselo: Bobabini amaqela batshintshiselana ngolwazi kwaye baqokelele ubungqina ngokufaka, ngokuncina amaxwebhu, ngezicelo, kunye nezicelo zokuvunywa. Ukutyhilwa kusoloko kuliqondo elide nelibiza imali eninzi, kodwa kubalulekile ukuqinisekisa ukuba akukho nalinye icala elingamangaliswayo ekuvavanyweni.
  • [[NTL:0] Intshukumo zemposiso ezikhoyo: IiAttney zefayile ukukhupha, ukuhambisa ugwebo lwesishwankathelo, okanye intshukumo ukukhupha ubungqina obuthile. Ezi ntshukumo zingasombulula ityala ngaphandle kovavanyo olupheleleyo ukuba izibakala azinakuphikiswa okanye ukuba umthetho uvumela kwicala elinye.
  • : Ityala liqhubekeka kwityala lebheri (umgwebo kuphela) okanye ukuchophela ityala. Ngexesha lokuvavanya, ummangaleli unikela ubungqina kuqala, ulandelwa yi-ethiff. AmaNgqina ayavavanywa aze axilongwe. Xa kugqityiwe ubungqina, kwicala ngalinye livala iimpikiswano. Ijaji iyalela abachopheli kumthetho osebenzayo, kunye nabagwebi ukuba bafikelele kwisigqibo.
  • Intshukumo zeposi- ezithi zikhawulezileyo: Emva kwesigqibo, iqela elilahlekileyo lingayi hambisa ifayile yentshukumo ukwenzela uvavanyo olutsha okanye libeke ecaleni umgwebo. Ukuba ezi zikhanyelwe, iqonga limiselwe ukuba libhenele.

Kubalulekile kubafundi ukuqonda umahluko phakathi wenyaniso kunye nemibuzo yomthetho. Inkundla evavanyiweyo isombulula iimbambano zenyani (umz., “Ngaba ummangalelwa uqhuba isibane esibomvu?”), ngelixesha ikhompathiswa igxininisa ngokupheleleyo kwiimpazamo ezisemthethweni (umz., “Ngaba umgwebi ulule umgaqo wendlela?”. Eli candelo lichaza isizathu sokuba iinkundla zenkundla zisoloko zibambe ityala.

Iintlobo Zenkundla Yetyala

Asizizo zonke iinkundla ezigwebayo ezifanayo. Kwinkqubo yorhulumente, U.S. iiNkundla zeSithili ziinkundla zokuvavanya jikelele. Urhulumente ngamnye unendlela yakhe, ngokufuthi iquka:

  • IiNkundla eziNcinci----Mali encinci ebandakanya iingxubano ezincinane ezibandakanya iimali ezilinganiselweyo (ngokuqhelekileyo ngaphantsi kwe-$5 000). Akukho magqwetha afunekayo; inkqubo ayicwangciswanga.
  • [[NT.0] Umnicipal okanye iMagistates’s Courts – ukuphatha ukwaphulwa kwendlela, iimpazamo, kunye nokuchongwa kwangaphambili kwetyala.
  • [[UMTHETHO: 0] Inkundla yesiphaluka – Iinkundla ezingundoqo zamatyala anzulu angoburhulumente nawamatyala olwaphulo-mthetho (ityala elikhulu).
  • [[UMTHETHO: 0] IiNkundla ezithe ngqo – ezifana neenkundla zentsapho, iinkundla zeprobate, okanye iinkundla zerhafu, nganye ijoliswe kummandla othile womthetho.

Ukuqonda ukuba yiyiphi inkundla elawula ityala yenye yezifundo zokuqala nabani na umfundi womthetho azifundayo, yaye yingcamango enokungenelwa ngummi ngamnye ngokwazi.

Inyathelo Lesibini: Ukufudukela Kwinkundla Eza Kuthethwa Ngetyala

Xa iqela likholelwa ukuba impazamo engokwasemthethweni yenzekile ngexesha lokuchotshelwa kwetyala, bangabhenela kwinkundla ephakathi. Isibheno asilotyala lesibini; akukho bungqina butsha bunikiweyo, kwaye akukho mangqina abizwayo kwakhona. Endaweni yoko, inkundla echaza ingxelo ebhaliweyo yetyala lenkundla evavanyiweyo, kunye nezimpikiswano ezibhaliweyo ezibizwa ngokuba yi- ii-briefs. Inkqubo ye-applette ilandela la manyathelo aqhelekileyo:

  • Iphepha lobheno: Iqela elinomtsalane (appet) kufuneka lifake isaziso sesibheno kumaxesha angqongqo exesha (idla ngokuba iintsuku ezingama-30 emva komgwebo wokugqibela.
  • [[Ukwahlulwa koxwebhu: 0] Uxwebhu lwetyala lomphathi-tyala uhlanganisa zonke izibongozo, iintshukumo, iintetho ezishukumayo, kunye nokuboniswa kwirekhodi esesikweni.
  • I-Briefs: Umgwebi ungenisa ingcaciso emfutshane yokuba kutheni inkundla egwebayo yenza impazamo eguqukayo. I-appelle (amaqela aphikisanayo) ifakela impendulo ekhusela isigqibo senkundla evavanyiweyo. Ngamanye amaxesha impendulo emfutshane iyavunyelwa.
  • [[FLT: 0] Iimpikiswano ezi-Oral: Icala ngalinye linikwa ixesha elilinganiselweyo (okkenene imizuzu eli-15-30) ukunikela iimpikiswano zabo ezingundoqo phambi kweqela labagwebi (ngokoqobo ezintathu). Abagwebi badla ngokuphazamisa ngemibuzo ukucacisa iincam zomthetho.
  • Ukuququzelela: Iqela lenjongo likhupha uluvo olubhaliweyo, olunokuqinisekisa (umqulu), ukubuya umva (ujiko), okanye ukubuyiselwa (umva) ityala kwinkundla yamatyala ukwenzela imicimbi eqhubekayo. Uluvo lungapapashwa luze lube ngumzekelo onyanzelisayo kwiimeko zexesha elizayo.

Iinkundla ze Appellate zisebenza phantsi kolwahlukileyo [[FLT: 0] iziko lophindo. Umzekelo, iziphumo eziyinyaniso zibuye zibuye zihlolwe phantsi kwe- “imposiso ecacileyo” indidi yenkundla yenkcazelo, ithetha ukuba inkundla yenkcazelo izakuyibhukuqa kuphela ukuba inesiqinisekiso esiqinisekileyo nesiqinileyo sokuba imposiso yenziwe. Izigqibo ezisemthethweni, kwesinye isandla, zibuye zibuye zibuye zihlolwe u-ovo [ (ukutsha), ithetha ukuba inkundla ye-appellate ayinikezili kuqwalaselwa komthetho. Oku kubaluleke ekuqondeni okubangela ukuba izibheno ziphumelele kwaye ezinye zingaphumeleli.

Enye ingcamango ephosakeleyo eqhelekileyo yeyokuba iinkundla ezichaphazelekayo ziqwalasela ukuba iziphumo zinokuba “zilungile” okanye“ zilungile." eneneni, zibuza kuphela ukuba ityala liqhutywe ngokwemigaqo esemthethweni efanelekileyo nokuba umthetho olungileyo usetyenziswe kusini na. Kwaneziphumo ezingekho sikweni zingama ukuba akukho mpazamo esemthethweni yenzekileyo.

Inyathelo 3: Indima YeNkundla Ephakamileyo

INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States (okanye inkundla ephakamileyo yeli lizwe) ithatha incopho ye-piramidi. Umsebenzi wayo oyintloko kukucombulula iimbambano phakathi kweenkundla ezincinci nokunika ingcaciso ecacileyo yezomGaqo-siseko kunye nomthetho wesizwe. Ngokungafaniyo neenkundla ezilawulayo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ayinyanzelekanga ukuba iphulaphule onke amatyala; ikhetha ukuba ngawaphi amatyala. Inkqubo ekwafuneka ukuba ityala lifikelele kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo ibandakanya amanyathelo aliqela abalulekileyo:

  • Isicelo se-Writ of Certiorari: Iqela elilahlekileyo kwinkundla esezantsi licela ityala leNkundla ePhakamileyo ukuba liphinde lihlole ityala. Esi sicelo kufuneka sichaze isizathu sokuba eli tyala liphakamise umbuzo obalulekileyo ogunyazisa ingqwalasela yeNkundla. AmaJaji asebenzisa i- “Rle of Four” ukugqiba: ukuba ubuncinane ivoti yezobulungisa ezine ukunika ityala, ityala liyamkeleka.
  • [[FLT: 0] Imifumlo ye-Merits: Xa kuvunyiwe isibeleko, ifayile yeqela ishwankathelwe kwimiba esemthethweni. izijungqe ze-'amcuce'e (umhlobo wenkundla') nazo ziyanikezelwa ngamaqela enzala, abaphengululi, kunye namaziko karhulumente ukuphembelela indlela yeNkundla.
  • Impikiswano ze- Eziqhelekileyo kwicala ngalinye zinemizuzu engama-30 ukunikela ityala labo phambi kwezo Zigwebo ezisithoba. AmaJaji abuza imibuzo ecacileyo enokutyhila inkxalabo yawo kunye notyekelo olunokwenzeka. Ezi ntlanganiso zibhalwa esidlangalaleni kwaye kamva zenziwe ukuba zifumaneke kwi-intanethi.
  • Umlomo kunye nesigqibo: Izigwebi zidibana ngasese ukuze zixubushe kwaye zivote emcimbini. IJaji eyiNtloko (okanye elona Lizwi liphezulu kuninzi) inikezela ubhalo loluvo lwabaninzi. Ukuqukumbelana okanye ukuchasana kwembono kungapapashwa.
  • Isigqibo seNkundla sisokugqibela. Ingaqinisekisa, iphinde iphinde iphinde iphendule ityala kwinkundla esezantsi ukwenzela inyathelo elibhekele phaya elivisisana noluvo. Ngenxa yokuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo ihleli kumphezulu wabaphathi becawa, izigqibo zayo zibophelele zonke iinkundla ezisezantsi kwimimandla.

INkundla ePhakamileyo ithetha kuphela malunga nesi-1% samawaka ezicelo eyifumanayo nyaka ngamnye. Igxininisa kumatyala abandakanya ii-'partical' enzulu emgceni, iimpikiswano phakathi kweenkundla zesiphaluka, okanye imiba ebalulekileyo yesizwe. Izigqibo zelizwe lokuphawula/ukukhupha uphawu (iimeko) njenge brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo [1954]] [1954]) kwityala lesikolo okanye . Hodges bhrefv v.[ (20) [20]

Kubafundi, ukufundisisa iNkundla ePhakamileyo lithuba lokubona indlela imigaqo engekho ngqiqweni eguqulela ngayo kwiziphumo ezicacileyo ezichaphazela ubomi bemihla ngemihla. Amandla eNkundla alo ophando olusemthethweni . Imiswe ku-Margery v. Madison [1803] [iiii-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-active mentsscriat yemithetho echasene noMgaqo-siseko, iyenza isebe elilingana norhulumente kunye noMongameli.

Inyathelo 4: Ukubaluleka Komelo Olusemthethweni

Ukumisa inkqubo yenkundla ngaphandle kwegqwetha kunokwenzeka (kwaziwa njenge-pro se umelo), kodwa kunqabile ukuba kucebiseke. Umthetho untsonkothile, imithetho yesithethe awuxoleli, kwaye izikhonkwane ``inkululeko, imali, okanye i-logo isoloko iphezulu. Imicimbi yomelo olusemthethweni kuzo zonke iinqanaba ngenxa yezizathu ezininzi ezinyanzelayo:

  • Active in Legin Doctrine: Abaphathi-macandelwana bachitha iminyaka befunda umthetho kwaye behambisana neenguquko. Bayazi ukuba ziziphi iingcamango ezingokwasemthethweni ezimele ziqhutyelwe phambili, ezokukhusela ezimele ukuphakanyiswa, nendlela yokulungiselela iimpikiswano zokwandisa ithuba lempumelelo.
  • Iprojekthi echazayo iSavvy: Iinkundla zinyanzelisa ukuba kufakwe ixesha elingqongqo lokufika, iimfuno zobume, kunye nemithetho ecacileyo. Ukungaliniki ixesha lokucwangcisa okanye ukubeka into engafanelekanga kungawaphazamisa amalungelo abalulekileyo. Abalawuli baqeqeshelwa ukuphepha le migibe.
  • Icebiso elinamava elinokwazi ukuchaza ubuthathaka kwimeko yotshaba, ukuncokola ngeendawo ezintle, kunye nokunika ubungqina ngendlela elula yokuyekelela. Bakwalawula iinkalo ezingokweemvakalelo zoluvo, ukunceda abaxhasi bahlale bejolise kwinjongo ezinde zexesha.
  • Access kwiZibonelelo: amafeme emithetho asebenzisa iiparalegali, abaphengululi, kunye namangqina obuchule. Kwanoogqirha abanononogwala abanamava abanokuqinisa ityala.

Kubantu abangakwaziyo ukufikelela igqwetha labucala, uHlaziyo lweSixweso-ziphene luqinisekisa igqwetha elimiselweyo lenkundla labamangalelwa bezaphuli-mthetho abajongene nexesha lokuvalelwa. Noko ke, akukho lungelo lomgaqo-siseko wokucebisa. I-athonsi yemali ingajikela kwiintlangano zoncedo olusemthethweni, iinkqubo ze-probono, okanye ikliniki yesikolo somthetho ukuze bafumane uncedo. Ukuqonda ezi zinceda abafundi baqonde impikiswano eqhubekayo ngokufikelela kubulungisa kunye nomsantsa phakathi kweemfuno zomthetho kunye noovimba abakhoyo.

Kukwabalulekile ukuphawula ukuba kwanamagqwetha anamava maxa wambi enza iimpazamo. Ingcamango ye yoncedo lwesiluleko ivumela ummangalelwa ovalelweyo ukuba avavanye ukuqiniseka kwawo ukuba umsebenzi wegqwetha wawunganyaniseki kangangokuba ayicel ’ ityala isiphumo. Lo mlinganiselo, umiselwe kwi Stickland v. Washington [19984], ufuna ubungqina bokungaqiniseki nokungaqiniseki nokungaqondakali kobunyani."a bar ecacileyo.

Inyathelo 5: Ukuqonda Iindlela Ekwathethwa Ngazo Inkundla Nendlela Yokuyilungisa

Ukuya enkundleni yenkundla kusenokuba yinto eyoyikisayo, kodwa ukulungiselela kakuhle nolwazi olufanelekileyo lwesimilo kusebenza kakhulu ekuqinisekiseni amava agudileyo. Enoba ulilungu, lingqina, okanye ungumqwalaseli, ukulandela ezi migaqo kubonisa intlonelo kwinkqubo yokugweba:

  • [[NTL:0] Isinxibo soshishino silindeleke ngokufanelekileyo:[ silindelekile, iimpahla, iimpahla, iihempe ezigqunyweyo. Kuphephe ukunxiba okungaqhelekanga (ii-jeans, ii-shirt, iintsinjana) kunye nezifakelo ezigqabhukayo. Injongo kukudlulisela ubunzulu nentlonelo kwinkundla.
  • [[FLT: 0] Yiba nexesha lokufika: Ukufika ubuncinane imizuzu eli-15 ngaphambi kwexesha. Iinkundla zisebenza kucwangciso olungqongqo; ukufika emva kwexesha kungaphumela kwimvume, ukuphoswa kwamathuba, okanye kwanomgwebo ongagqibekanga.
  • Bonisa iMpatho kuMgwebi: Yima xa ijaji ingena okanye iphuma egumbini. Yithi jike ijaji “Imbeko Yakho” okanye“ Imbeko Yakho, Juji [Igama Lokugqibela]." Ungaze umphazamise umgwebi okanye uthethe ngaphandle kwesizathu.
  • [[NTL: 0] Amacebo ombane ombane: cima okanye thulisa icell phone, i smatch, nezinye izixhobo. Ukufowuna okanye ukufumana izaziso ngexesha leziphumo kuphazamisa kakhulu.
  • Imithetho yokuziphatha yeNkundla: Musa ukudla, ukusela, ukuhlafuna itshumu, okanye ukufunda izinto ezingahambelaniyo. Xa uthetha, bhekisa iintetho zakho kumgwebi okanye kungqina, hayi kwiqela eliphikisanayo. Yima xa uthetha nenkundla.
  • Gcina iKhompathimenti: ukugqajukelwa ziimvakalelo, ukuxambulisana nejaji, okanye ukungahloneli abasebenzi benkundla kungakhokelela ekudeleni izityholo zenkundla. Zigcine uzolile, uphulaphule ngenyameko, kwaye igqwetha lakho liyiphathe intetho egqwethayo.
  • I- Ngaphantsi kwendima yeNkundla yeNkundla: Ibhelif, umcholacholi-ndaba wenkundla, umabhalane, kunye nesekela lomphathi ngamnye unemisebenzi ethile. Baphathe ngesimilo; banganika ukhokelo kwiinkqubo.

Isimilo senkundla asingomthetho nje oqhelekileyo; siphakamisa isidima senkqubo yokugweba yaye siqinisekisa ukuba amatyala enziwe ngokufanelekileyo nangempumelelo. Kubafundi, ukuthobela ityala lenkundla ephilayo (ngokuqhelekileyo okanye umntu ngamnye) yindlela ebalaseleyo yokubeka ezi ziko.

Inyathelo 6: Izinto Ezinokufundwa Ngokubhekele phaya

Nantsi enye yezona zinto zixabisekileyo abafundi nabafundisi:

Ngokudibanisa ezi zinto, abafundi banokusuka kulwazi oluthethwayo baye kuyiqonda ngendlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo nesizathu sokuba zibalulekile.

Isiphelo: Ukunika Okusesikweni Ngokuqonda

Indlela edlula kwiinkundla ayingomdla okanye ayinaluzizi. Yinkqubo eyenziwe kakuhle yokuhlola kunye nolungelelwano eqinisekisa ukuba iimpikiswano ziconjululwe kakuhle, imithetho isetyenziswa ngokungaguqukiyo, kwaye amalungelo omntu ngamnye akhuselwa. Kumsebenzi wokufumana intengo ezifumana inyani kwimimiselo yenkundla emisela iNkundla ePhakamileyo, umgangatho ngamnye udlala indima ebalulekileyo ekuphatheni isigwebo.

Kubafundi, ubuchule bokuphumelela olu hambo asikokuphumelela nje uvavanyo − kukukuba ngummi onolwazi onokubandakanyeka kwinkqubo yomthetho, ummeli wenkqubo, kunye nemithetho efuna ukuphenduliswa. Umthetho uxhomekeke ekuthembekeni kwabantu, kwaye ukholose ngokusekelwe ekuqondeni. Njengoko uqhubeka uhlola iinkundla, khumbula ukuba `````itikiti lendlela' okanye umzi womthetho-omGaqo-siseko'' ulandela amanyathelo afanayo. Ngokungakumbi uyazi, uxhotyiswe kakuhle yiyo ukuqhuba inkqubo yoluntu kwaye unegalelo kwibutho apho kukho ubulungisa.