Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, imfundiso yokuzikhusela ekulawuleni kwesizwe ivele njengendawo ephindaphindwayo kumthetho we-U.S. ebangela ukuba iinkundla ziphinde zihlole imida phakathi kolawulo lukarhulumente kunye namalungelo omntu ngamnye. Lo mgaqo usemthethweni udla ngokuwalela amaqela azimeleyo ekumangaleleni urhulumente kwinkundla karhulumente okanye kwinkundla karhulumente ngaphandle kwemvume karhulumente. Kodwa iinkqubano ezichanileyo zelo bala zitshintshile ngothotho lwezigqibo zale mihla, zibonakalisa iintshukumisa zombini zolwandiso kunye nezomdlamkelo phakathi kwejahobelo yejaji. Ukuqonda ezi zimo zomthetho zakutshanje zibalulekile kwiphondo, abaquququzeligatha, abaququzeli-mthetho, abaquququzeleli-mthetho, nabaququququzeli bemi, nabani nabani nabani nabani nabani na otheneyo oluntsontileyo

Isiseko sembali sokungahambelani koMongami wasebuRhulumenteni

Imfundiso yale mihla yokuzimela ulawulo lolawulo lombuso ilandela imvelaphi yayo kumthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi, owawuthi ukumkani akanakumangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yakhe. Emva kweNguquko yaseMerika, amaphondo asandul' ukusekwa awuzuza ngokutsha lo mgaqo, kodwa iziferames zomGaqo-siseko we-U.S. ekuqaleni zashiya isicelo sawo sorhulumente sidibeneyo. Lo mbhalo weshumi elinesixhenxe, ogunyaziswe ngo1795, wacaciswa ukuba amandla okugweba eUnited States awanyukeli "enziwe okanye amangalelwa omnye we-United States yiPactizelity yelinye iLizwe, okanye yiMithelela okanye yiMiba eCandelo yalo naliphi naliphi na elinye ilizwe." Lo mbhalo wabonakala uthetha ngokufutshane kwimithetho eyahlukeneyo, kodwa iNkukhosi ephakamileyo ayinwebindiswa.

Kwimeko zentsimbi ezifana Hans v. Louisiana (1890), iNkundla yathi uLawulo lweNkundla lweshumi elinesine luquka umgaqo obanzi wokuzikhusela kwesizwe obotshelelwe kwilizwe ngokuchasene nombuso waso, naxa isuti isekelwe kumthetho karhulumente. Esi sigqibo simisela isigaba ngaphezu kwenkulungwane yenkulungwane yejurisprunuve ukuzama ukuchaza imida echanileyo yokuthintela. Ekupheleni kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini, iNkundla yeRehnqulo yaphinda yavuselelwa ekukhuseleni ukhuseleko lomthetho, kwanokuba ngumqobo onamandla oqinileyo owiswayo phantsi kwemithetho ethile. Oku kujoliswe phambili kwembali kuyagxekwa ekuqondeni kwemeko yezomthetho zangoku, apho iNkuqhubekela umlinganiselo wolawulo lweNkulwano.

IsiHlanzi Seshumi Nesibhozo Nenkcazelo Yaso Yale Mihla

ISinyusi-Mpanzi seshumi nenye sihlala siyi-ankile yombhalo we-ankile yokhuselo lwesizwe, kodwa ukutolikwa kwayo kuye kwavela ngokuphawulekayo. Alden v. Maine [1999], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabambelela ekubeni ukuthintelwa kwezobungangamsha kwanwenwenwe kwinkundla, kungekhona nje ukuthintelwa komthetho, ukuqiqa ukuba umGaqo-siseko ulondoloza isidima sobugqeba ne-emele. Izigqibo ziqinisekisa ukuba umgaqo-siseko ulondoloza isidima somgaqo-siseko kunye ne-siseko samazwe.

Noko ke, iNkundla imisele iindidi ezibalulekileyo. Ama-Assorrates angavuma ukuvumelana, kwaye iBhunga lingazikhusela ekuthintelweni kwengxaki xa lisebenza kwiCandelo 5 loLawulo lwe-14. Ukongeza, imfundiso ye ex icandelo Young[ [1988] ivumela iisuti ngokuchasene namagosa asekuhlaleni alindele ukunyanzeliswa komthetho wesizwe, isivalo sokhuseleko esibalulekileyo esithintela ukukhuselwa ekubeni ngumqobo wokuzinziswa komgaqo-siseko. Izigqibo zakutshanje ziye zavavanya ezi zinto zingaqhelekanga, zidala iintambo ezintsha zedabi zokwandisa okanye umlinganiselo.

Utyekelo Olulinganisela Ukungalawuleki Kolawulo: Ityala Eliyintloko Lakutshanje

Imithetho emininzi ephawulekayo iye yaqhubela ekuncitshisweni kolawulo lwesizwe, ingakumbi xa amalungelo omthetho-siseko okanye ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko lusengozini. Ezi zigqibo zibonisa ukukulungela ukunyanzelisa ubungangamsha borhulumente kwanakumazwe azimeleyo.

ISebe leTexas leSigwebi sokwaphula umthetho (2017)

Iline v. ISebe leTexas leJaji yoChwebiso-mthetho, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi ukhuseleko lwesizwe aluwaxhasi amatyala phantsi koMthetho weNtsapho kunye noMgangatho we-Medical Lesting (FMLA) xa umqeshwa ebonakalisa ucalucalulo lobufana. INkundla eyahlula phakathi kweFMLA ishiye ilungiselelo lokuzinyamekela ngokwayo (elingelo olusebenzayo lokusebenzisa amandla amahlanu) kunye namalungiselelo ayo okunyamekela intsapho (oko kwakunjalo). Isigqibo sacacisa ukuba xa iBhunga lwe-Congresayrage isebenza phantsi koLawulo lwe-14, kufuneka ithobele i-Genethiye. Oku kuthintela okusingeyo ngokomthetho wokulwa kwesizwe (ukungavumelani kwemithetho echasene nomthetho).

Fulton v. IsiXeko sasePhiladelphia (2021)

Fulton v. IsiXeko sasePhiladelphia, iNkundla yathetha ngokudibana kwemibutho yokuzikhusela ekuzimeleni nokuzilolonga, nangona isigqibo sokugqibela sajika kumacandelo emithetho. Ityala lavela xa iPhiladelphia yaphelisa isivumelwano sokuxhasa iSebe leNtlalo yamaKatolika kuba isebe lala ukuqinisekisa izibini ezifanayo zobugqhinga ukuze zifakwe. Ngelixa isixeko sathi izenzo zaso azingoondilele kwaye zisebenza ngokuqhelekileyo, iNkundla yafumana ukuba ayizange i. Ngokubanzi, iNkumbuso ayizange inike ukhuseleko olubanzi lwezo zigqibo ngenxa yezigqibo zayo zokwamkelo; endaweni yoko, lalikholelwa ukuba isixeko sithethelele nawuphi na umthwalo wonqulo phantsi komgangatho ongqongqo. Oku kwaqinisekisa umgaqo wokuzikhusela kolawulo lwe-gromastimetistikitiestel, ingakumbi kwimist Trencelved.

UAllen n/ noCooper (2020)

Act ye-Allen v. Cooper wanika isithintelo kubagcini-mvume abafuna ukumangalelwa. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yavumelana ukuba iCopyright Remediatification Act inyanise ukuba iKonsole Remediation Calaritification Act ayimiselanga ngokusemthethweni ukuthintelwa kwemeko yolawulo yeBrook kuba iBression ayizange ingakwazi ukuchonga imilinganiselo yemo-omfa yombuso ye-ocetmenta. Inkundla yagxininisa ukuba ukuze ukwenziwa kwe-mthetho we-computting kuqinisekiswe ukuba inyani inyani inyani ifuna ukuba isiseko sisebenze kakuhle, iBhunga kufuneka lichaze injongo yalo lize lisebenze phantsi komgaqo-siseko esifanelekileyo. Esi sigqibo simisela ukufikelela kwempahla yesizwe sobugqeqesho obuchaseneyo ngokubhekiseleleyo kumazwe, siqinisekisa imfuneko sokucosa ukwenziwa kwemithetho neziphumo xa kujongo lwezo lwemithetho-mthetho-ngqungqungquthela.

ISebe leTexas loKhuseleko loLuntu (2022)

.Umthetho weSebe le-Texas loKhuseleko loLuntu, iNkundla yaqwalasela ulwalamano phakathi kokhuseleko lobungangamsha kunye namandla omkhosi karhulumente karhulumente. Ityala lavela phantsi kweNkonzo eFanekileyo kunye namalungelo oMsebenzi e-Reocrance Amalungelo oMgaqo-siseko, ekhusela amalungelo abantu abangekho mthethweni amalungelo enkonzo. Inkundla yaqwalasela ukuba xa urhulumente uququzelela igunya lakhe lomgaqo-siseko wesizwe kukhuselo lwesizwe, lingabeka abo basemalukweni ngaphandle kwemvume yabo. Isigqibo esi-5-4 sigxininisa ukuba isakhiwo somGaqo-siseko sivumela ukuba simisele imilinganiselo esemthethweni kwiimeko ezithile xa esenza izinto eziphazamisana nemfazwe yolawulo lwelizwe. Oku kulawula ukumanyana kwemithetho ethile yemfazwe.

Utyekelo olunwenwayo

Despite these limitations, other recent decisions have reinforced sovereign immunity, especially in contexts where Congress lacks clear evidence of constitutional violations or where the state's consent is absent.

Ulwando Kwimeko Yemihlaba Engacaciswanga

Allen v. Cooper ayiphelelanga nje kuphela ukuhlahlela kodwa kwakhona yaphinda yaqinisekisa imbono ebanzi yokhuseleko lombuso. Ngokufuna iKongreskone ukuba ibhale ipateni yokuchasa kunye nonyango oludibeneyo kunye nolweprojekthi, iNkundla yenza kube nzima ukukhupha ukhuselo kwiphawu, uxwebhu olusemthethweni, kunye namatyala asemthethweni. Izigqibo ezisezantsi zenkundla zisebenzise le migaqo yokuqiqaqalsa, ngokufuthi izikhundla zikarhulumente ezidityanisiweyo kwi-IP mpahla naxa zibandakanye nemisebenzi yentengiso.

Ukungahambelani kwiNkundla yeRhulumente namaNkqutyana

Amatyala akutshanje akwalwa noko kubangela ukuba uthintelo lusebenze. Ezinye iinkundla ziye zathi ihambo ye-palsel'ucation karhulumente ikukususa icala kwinkundla yelizwe okanye ukufuna uphengululo. (ukuzama ukuphelisa uthintelo) akuthethi ukuba ukhuseleko lwetyala lixhomekeke ngokomthetho ngaphandle kokuba urhulumente uyavuma ngokucacileyo. Ibhodi yeRegents igcine ukhuseleko lwe-projekthi] [2004], iNkufumana ukuba ukhuseleko lwetyala ngokuzibophelele ngokususa ngokuzithandela ityala elibandakanya ityala nentengiso zombi zomthetho, kodwa ukucaciswa okungaguquguqukiyo. Ngamanye amaxesha iinkundla ezisezantsi ziye zasebenzisa iiLapid ezibambene, zigcina ukukhusela ngenxa yokuba kungabikho kokungalawule.

Impembelelo ye [[FLT: 0] Penn East Pipeline Co. v. New Jersey (2021)

i-pennn East Hupline Co. v. New Jersey yasebenzisana namandla karhulumente karhulumente ukuphathisa iinkampani ezizimeleyo igunya lolawulo oluphezulu. INkundla yabambelela kwelokuba xa urhulumente wequmrhu ezisa isenzo sokugweba, isenokusebenzisa igunya layo elipheleleyo nokuba ikwenza oko ngento ekhoyo yabucala. Oku kwawulahla umbuzo wokuba ukhuseleko lwamazwe aluzange luziswe ngabathunywa bempahla borhulumente worhulumente worhulumente. Ngelixa ekugqibeleni isigqibo savumela inkampani yemibhobhobho ukuba iqhubeke, yenza njalo ngokuwisa isenzo kulawulo lorhulumente kunokuba kuthintele ulawulo lwe-brootmote. Le ndlela ivuma ngokupheleleyo ukuba ulawulo lwendalo luhlala lungenabunyani ngaphandle kokuba amandla olawulo oluthe ngqo.

Indima Yemithetho Yomanyano: IWaiver Nokunyuswa

Eyona nto iphambili kwiinkqubo zokugweba zakutshanje kukudlala phakathi kokhuseleko lolawulo oluphezulu nomthetho wesizwe. IBhunga lingasikhusela ukuba (1) libonisa injongo ecacileyo yokwenza oko kwaye (2) lisebenzisa iCandelo 5 loMgaqo-siseko osemthethweni osebenzayo. Izigqibo zakutshanje ziye zaziqinisa iimfuno zokukhutshwa kwemithetho, zinyanzelisa ukuba iNgqungquthela ichaze indlela esasazekileyo yokuziphatha okungamiselwanga ngokufanelekileyo kunye nezonyango ngokufanelekileyo.

I-appliser slatever inye indlela: uluvo lungavumelana ngokuzithandela nokwamkela imali karhulumente okanye ukubandakanyeka kwimisebenzi ekwathi iimeko zeKhomishini zichaphazeleka. Noko ke, iinkundla ziye zahlola izithinteli ezinjalo ukuze zicace. College Savings Bank v. Florida Preference Secondary Education Board [[[FLT:] [1999]], iNkubonelo ingqina ukuba ukungenelela kukarhulumente kwintengiso yomthetho akuzenzeki ngokuzenzekelayo. Kutshanje, iNkundla ifuna ukuba nayiphi na i-averravery Bank icace kwaye i-mbé, ngokufuthi ingavumi ukuvuma ukuqulungela ekulandeleni umthetho jikelele.

Amalungelo omGaqo-siseko Achasene Nokungahambelani

Mhlawumbi eyona ndawo ithenjiweyo ibandakanya ukungqubana phakathi kwamalungelo omgaqo-siseko ngamnye kunye nekhaka lokhuseleko oluphezulu. Imfundiso ye Ex yeyesibini ivumela iisuti ezichasene nezombuso ezilindele ukuthomalaliswa, kodwa umlinganiselo wazo uvavanyiwe. Impilo yomfazi ye-Ofisi ye-odom. Jackson[[[FLT:] [2001], iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo iqwalaselwe ukuba ngabagwebi benkundla yezoburhulumente, oomatilam, kunye nabemi babucala banokugwetywa phantsi [[FLT] inxenye yayo i-Ex Yooff [[FLT] [FLT:] ukuvavanya umthetho wokuqhotyo. Inkundla yabamba-onkeneyo igweba ngokuchasene neejajinga-mthetho, kodwa abavumele abagwebi, kodwa abagwebi abango bavumele ukuba bangene kwinkundla ezingo.

Ngokufanayo, kwi [[FLT: 0] ukhuseleko kunye notshintsho lwasentolongweni , iinkundla ezincinci zifikelele iziphumo ezitshintshileyo. Abanye baye bavumela ukukhululeka okuphangaleleyo phantsi inxenye eYona ukunyanga ulwaphulo-mthetho lwenkqubo, lo gama ezinye ziyibekelwe umda kubaphathi abathile abanegunya lokugcina umthetho. Isiphumo sisenzo esidityaniswe kwimithetho-siseko esifuna ukhuthazo nocwangciso lolawulo.

Imisebenzi yezonyango

Ezi zinto zilandelayo zineziphumo ezisebenzayo. Abamangaleli abamangalela iphondo okanye abameli balo kufuneka bahambe kwibala lebhombu lokukhusela ukukhusela ukudleka.

  • [[FLT: 0] Ibonisa ummangalelwa ofanelekileyo: ukuthelekelela umphathi worhulumente kumandla akhe asemthethweni kuncedo olulindelekileyo phantsi Ex icandelo uYona [[[FLT: 3]] angawugqitha ukhuseleko, kodwa ukugweba urhulumente ngokwawo akukwenzi oko.
  • Ulwimi lwe-Analyze lwaselurhulumenteni: ukuba ityala livela phantsi komthetho wezwelonke, khangela ukuba iBhunga liyivakalise ngokucacileyo na injongo yokukhusela ukukhuselwa kwemijelo nokuba lenza phantsi kwecandelo 5 okanye elinye igunya elisebenzayo.
  • Imvume yokuqwalasela kunye ne-'acter': Jonga izichasi ezichazayo kumthetho wesizwe okanye ukwamkelwa kwemali karhulumente. Kwanangoko, kulungiselelwe ukutolikwa okumxinwa kwetyala.
  • [[NTL:0] Umzekelo ojikelezayo: onenkundla ePhakamileyo eyahlulwe ngokusondeleyo, umthetho wokhuseleko lobukhosi uhlala unolwelo. Ukumiselwa kwakutshanje kungaluguqula ulwalamano, ngoko oogqirha kufuneka balandele isiphiwo sesibeleko kunye namatyala alindeleyo.

Koorhulumente, ukuqonda imida yokugonywa kubaluleke ngokufanayo. Ukukhusela ekumangalelweni kungafuna uhlolo locoselelo kusini na ukuba urhulumente angalukhusela ngaphandle komngcipheko wokulufumana ngokuvela. Amanye amazwe aye amisela imithetho evuma iindidi ezithile zesuti ngoxa egcina ukhuseleko lwabanye. Ukuhlala ngemikhwa yokugweba kunceda amacandelo aphephe ukuphambuka okubiza imali eninzi.

Ikamva: Ikamva

Imfundiso yokuzikhusela ekuzimelanga ekulawuleni kwesizwe iza kuxhomekeka kwizinto eziliqela: ukwenziwa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo, ukuvuma kweNkundla ePhakamileyo ukwakha iingxelo ezomeleleyo ukuze kunyuswe, kunye neentlobo zamatyala afikelela kwinkundla ephakamileyo. Kwixesha lama-2023, iNkundla iye yakuva ukurhoxa kwemfundo v. Brown[, ityala elicel'ucelomngeni ukufaneleka kwesivumelwano sokuhlala soluntu esabeka uncedo kurhulumente ngaphandle kwemvume ecacileyo.

Ngaphezu koko, imibandela ebandakanya ukukhuselwa kwemithetho elawulayo ekuwisweni kwemali, ukunyanzeliswa kolawulo lwemekobume, kunye nempahla yengqondo iyaqhubeka isenza icace. Ukuxhomekeka okungakumbi kweNkundla ekubhalweni kwemibhalo nakubuntlalo-siseko kungaxhasa imbono enciphileyo yokuzikhusela, njengoko abanye abaphengululi bentlandlolo bephikisayo besithi uLawulo lweshumi elinesibhozo lwalungacetyelelwanga ukuba lubekelwe phantsi komthetho wesizwe. Ngokuchasene noko, abanye baphikisa ngelithi ukukhusela ulawulo lobukhosi luphawu olungundoqo olugcinwe yinkqubo yomgaqo-siseko. Le ngxoxo ecacisa imfundiso iqinisekisa ukuba le mfundiso iya kuhlala ingumbandela wentetho ephilileyo yekomiti egweba.

Isiphelo

Iprojekthi yomthetho yakutshanje yokwandisa okanye yokulinganisela ulawulo lolawulo-mthetho lwesizwe ityhila indawo ephikiswa kakhulu yomthetho womgaqo-siseko. Lane kunye iNkundla ePhakamileyo] [ ku [[FLT]] ku [[FLT]] Allen[[[5]] kunye [[FLT]], iNkundla ePhakamileyo ithumele imiqondiso exubileyo, maxa limcinezela ukhuseleko lwamalungelo orhulumente kunye namanye amaxesha lokuyiqinisayo ukukhusela imeko-ISMGULAS. Isiphumo salo nayiphi nayiphi na imeko ekhoyo, ukumila kokuzibeka komgaqo-mthetho womthetho-siseko, kunye nokuchaza indlela echaphazeleyo, nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi na enye i-okquququzelele nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi naleyo yemithetho esebenzayo phakathi kwemithetho.

Ukufunda okubhekele phaya, jonga [[FLT: 0] Icandelo lolwazi lomthetho lokucazulula ukhuseleko lombuso , iphepha le-Justia ye-[FLT]] Testas v. Isebe le-Texas loKhuseleko loLuntu[FLT]], kunye noluvo lweNkundla yezente [[FLT:]]