Ukuqonda ukuTshaliswa koLawulo lweRhulumente kuMphathiswa

Ukhuseleko lwezolawulo lwezikhuseli zelizwe yimfundiso esemthethweni esekelwe ngokunzulu kwimithetho yamaMelika. Ikhusela kunye namaqumrhu abo ukuba bangamangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yabo evakalayo. Kwimeko yenkqubo yezothutho lukawonke-wonke. "njengeebhasi zesixeko, iinkqubo ezihamba ngaphantsi komhlaba, iintambo zenqwelo-moya, kunye neenkonzo zowezowezothutho zikarhulumente, `le ```imfundiso idala indawo ekhethekileyo nethanda ukucelw' umngeni. Abakhweli benzakala kwiingozi, abasebenzi abajongeneemisebenzi, okanye izakhiwo ezifuna ukuhlawulwa zinokufumana oko kuvela ngokukhawuleza ngomthetho wesiXhosa neSihlalo seshumi Eline.

Ngenxa yokuba amagunya othutho lukawonke-wonke azizixhobo zombuso okanye urhulumente wasekuhlaleni, afumana ilifa elinolawulo. Noko ke, imfundiso ayiphelelanga. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, izikhululo zowiso-mthetho neenkundla ziye zayila ngaphandle, iziphakamiso, kunye namaqhinga omthetho avumela ezinye izibhengezo ziqhubeke. Kwiingcali zezomthetho, abaphathi-mikhosi, nabameli benkqubo, ukuqondwa ngokucokisekileyo kwezi zimvo ziyimfuneko ekuthatheni imiyalelo, ukulawula umngcipheko, kwaye kuqinisekisa ukuba amaqela amonzakeleyo anendlela yokulawula xa kufanelekile.

Isiseko sembali nesomGaqo-siseko

IsiHlomelo Seshumi Nesibhozo Nemfundiso Yangaphambili

Umgaqo wokuzikhusela kolawulo oluzimeleyo umhla ka-1795, uqinisekisiwe ngokucacileyo kwinkundla yezolawulo. Umthetho wamaNgesi wawusithi "ukumkani akanakwenza nto iphosakeleyo," oko kuthetha ukuba isithsaba asinakugwetywa ngaphandle kwemvume yaso. Emva kweMvukelo-nguquko yaseMerika, uchaza ukuba yamkele le ngcamango. ISindululo seshumi Nesibhozo seSithintelo, sagunyaziswa ngokucacileyo ngo1795, ukunqandwa kwesuti yesizwe eziswe kwinkundla yephondo ngabemi bomnye urhulumente okanye amazwe asemzini. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo yandisa oku ukuze iquke iisuti zabemi borhulumente, iphumele ngokunempumelelo imiqathango yabucala enxamnye namazwe asekuhlaleni ngaphandle kokuba imvume okanye iBrouthe isiwiso sokhuseleko esingqalileyo sokhuseleko phantsi komgaqo-mthetho-siseko somthetho-siseko.

Le nkundla ifikelela kumasebe karhulumente kunye namaqumrhu ezothutho lukawonke-wonke. IRegents zeYunivesithi yaseKhalifoniya v. Doe (1997), iNkundla yaqinisekisa ukuba ukukhuselwa koMphetho-Mphetho-mda weshumi elinesi-11 kugqubuthela izinto ezikhoyo "izixhobo zikarhulumente," nokuba zinawo amandla okukhombisa okanye athenjiswa phantsi komthetho karhulumente. Uvavanyo lugxininisa kwityala elingokwasemthethweni lomthetho wokugweba kwiqumrhu, umlinganiselo wokulawula kwesizwe, kunye nomthombo wenkxaso yemibutho.

Indalo: Urhulumente noManyano

Kubalulekile ukuba, ukukhusela ukhuseleko lwezolawulo oluzimeleyo kumgangatho emibini. Ama-United States anokhuseleko kwisuti kwiinkundla zephondo phantsi koMphetho-Mgaqo-nkqubo weshumi elinesi-11. Kwinkundla zikarhulumente, axhomekeke kwilungu elinye lokhuseleko lomthetho, lawo amazwe amaninzi aye asebenzisana okanye awaguqula ngemithetho. Amaqumrhu oluntu abekwe enkundleni karhulumente asenokuqinisekisa okanye zombini. I-projekthi ingenza udideko: umchasi-mthetho unokuba nengxelo esemthethweni phantsi kwengxelo yokuba uthatha isenzo enkundleni yenkundla yombuso, kodwa ukuba igunya lokuhambisa izinto lithathwa njengengalo karhulumente, isenokuvalwa kwinkundla yorhulumente engekho mfobetho okanye i-wayivile.

Indlela Amacebo Endlela Engalawulekiyo Asetyenziswa Ngayo Kwinkqubo Yezothutho

Imicimbi yonikezelo njengezixhobo zikaRhulumente

Ukugqiba ukuba ngaba igunya lezothutho likawonke-wonke lingazibiza ukuba liyakwazi ukukhusela ulawulo lolawulo, iinkundla zihlola isakhiwo salo. Inkqubo yebhasi yesixeko esetyenziswa ngqo ngurhulumente kamasipala idla ngokuphathwa njengequmrhu likamasipala, elithi ngokuqhelekileyo lingakunandiphi ukuthintelwa kwemithetho karhulumente. Noko ke, igunya lothutho lwengingqi eliyilwe ngumthetho karhulumente, elixhaswa yimeko karhulumente, kwaye elilawulwa ngamagosa amiselwe ngurhulumente aphantse afaneleke njengengalo yesizwe. Umzekelo, i-Washington Metrolitan Transitain Authority (WAMAT), edalwe yi-octive Counity, egcinwe ukuba nento elawulayo epheleleyo efana neyombutho likarhulumente. [[FLT:]WFM.SM.[FFFFLD:1] [19981] [1]

Olu hlelo luneziphumo zokwenene zehlabathi. Xa umkhweli ewela kwisikhuphi somphantsi wenqanawe esihamba ngaphantsi komhlaba, angabiza isiziko lothutho njengommangalelwa. Lo mbutho ungakhawuleza uthathe inyathelo lokugxotha ngokusekelwe kwisixhobo sokuzikhusela kwi-ankile. Inkundla ngoko ihlola ukugunyazisa kombutho, isakhiwo semali, kunye nesiseko setyala likarhulumente. Ukuba ukunqanda ukuthintelwa kwemeko kufuneka kujonge kwi-statory ravers okanye ii-oparts.

Iintlobo Ezingaqondakaliyo Zokuthelekisa

I-ECD, i-ECD, i-EPPP, i-CPF, i-CPF, i-CPF, i-CPF, i-APPPP i-CPF, i-CPF, i-CPF, i-CPF, i-CPF, i-APPPPPPPPP i-C, i-CPF, i-CPPPPPPPPP i-IIK, i-APPPPPPPPP i-M, i-CM, i-CM, i-CM, i-CMGPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP i-U, i-UM, i-EN i-EN i-ENPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPGPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP

  • [[UMTL:0] Umonakalo wobuqu nokufa okuphosakeleyo: Iingozi ezibangelwa kukungakhathali kokusebenza kooduladula, oololiwe, okanye ukungaphumeleli kogcino.
  • [[UMTL:0] iimbambano zokwahlula:[[FT:1] ucalucalulo, impindezelo, okanye iyure yomvuzo nemali efunwa ngabasebenzi bothutho.
  • Impikiswano: Isivumelwano esidityanisiweyo sabathengisi, iifemu zokwakha, okanye ii-consolaires.
  • Izibhengezo zamalungelo eCivil: Izityholo zemigaqo-nkqubo okanye izenzo ezingamiselwanga, ezifana nokukhutshwa kohlanga ngamapolisa othutho.
  • Umonakalo ogqithisileyo: umonakalo kwizithuthi zobuqu ekungqubaneni nezithuthi zothutho okanye izibonelelo.

Kudidi ngalunye, ummangalelwa usenokuzikhusela, enyanzela inkundla ukuba ihlole enoba ukho na umxhasi ofanelekileyo.

Ezikhethekileyo nezikhewu: Iindlela zokuphendula

ISixeko seQumrhu

IFTCA ([FFLT:0]28 U.S.C. 7646 (b), 2671-2680) lilungiselelo eliphambili lokukhupha urhulumente wesizwe kwitorts ezibekwe ngabasebenzi bakhe. Ngelixesha amaqumrhu okuthutha e-FTC angekho phantsi kolawulo oluphezulu, imodeli yeFTC iphelise urhulumente omninzi. Ngaphantsi kweFTCA, iUnited States ozikhuselayo kwizenzo zokungakhathaleli okanye ukukhutshwa kwabasebenzi abasebenza kwisikhundla somsebenzi, ukusa kumlinganiselo wokuba umntu ozimeleyo uya kuvumelana nomthetho wendawo apho umsebenzi wenziwe khona. Oku kuthetha ukuba oko kuthethwa kukuba umsebenzi (egraki). Amska ubangela ukuchaphaza kwetyala kukarhulumente othe ngendawo ephantsi kwe-FTC, nangona kusetyenziswa ngokungqongqo.

IMithendeleko Ithetha Ngezenzo Nemida Yemingxuma

Umbuso ngamnye uye wenza uhlobo oluthile lwetort lwenza into yokuba imodeli yokhuseleko lolawulo lwezolawulo ngokwenxenye kwimiqathango ethile echasene namasebe karhulumente, kuquka amagunya othutho. Umzekelo, i-Khalifoniya ye-Khalifoniya ifuna intelekelelo ecacileyo yokuzithethelela ityala. Intengo inika umbutho ithuba lokuhlala. Ukungavumelani nokuzinziswa kwetyala. Amanye amaphondo afaka iintambo kwilahleko, asusa iimali, okanye alinganisela iintlobo zezibhengezo ezinokuthi zingeziswe. Umzekelo, uninzi lulondoloza ukhuseleko lwezibanga elibandakanya "isutisolute" umsebenzi wokwenza ugwebo, ezibandakanya izigqibo ezinjalo ezibandakanya ucwangciso lwendlela yokulungisa indlela okanye ukunyusa uhlahlolo.

Ukunyuswa

IKhomishini iyakwazi ukukhusela ulawulo lwesizwe xa isebenza phantsi kweCandelo 5 loMphetho-Mgaqo-nkqubo we-14th. Umzekelo, phantsi kweSihlomelo VII soMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1942 (ucalulo lwemisebenzi) kunye namaMelika anobugqeba obungakhubazekiyo (ADA) angawuloyisa ukhuseleko lwemeko-mbuso. Abaxhasi beYunivesithi ye-Alabama v. [FLT:] [2001], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yakholelwa ukuba abasebenzi abanako ukukhohliswa ngemali phantsi kwe-ADA. Kodwa iinkonzo zikawonke wonke umntu, ezisebenza ekuthuleni, zixhaswa njengokukhuselwa kokhuseleko olusebenzayo [FTB] [FTN] [2001] [2001] [4], iNkugqibelo-ose-ose-AFT] kuphela apho abasebenzi beyelela ukunikezela ngemeko ezikhoyo, kodwa ezithi zezo zinokuthi ukuba ziphumele, zonke iimeko ezithelela, kodwa ziphumele phantsi kwezo zoku.

Ivumela ukusket-scheme kuMthetho we-Transit Agency

Umthetho othile wesizwe odala igunya lokuhambisa uquka ukuvunyelwa kwenqanaba. Ulwimi lungahluka. Lusenokuthi, "Igunya lingamangalelwa lize lisuswe." Iinkundla zikholelwa ukuba ulwimi olunjalo kuphela aluzithinteli ngokwalo izikhundla ezizimeleyo ngokuzenzekelayo . resee, umz. Morris v. New York City Transit Aguver [N.Y. 1986]. Kodwa ke, luyisibonisi esinamandla senjongo yemithetho. Ngoku amaninzi afuna ingxelo ecacileyo ye-waver; ulwimi oludidaliweyo luchazwa ngoku ngoku ngoku ngoku kuvumela umlawuli.

Izakhono ezingundoqo zokwahlula-hlula

Kumatyala: Ukoyisa Ukhuselo Olungenazintlu

Ukuthetha ngempumelelo nxamnye negunya lothutho lukawonke-wonke kufuna ukuthobelana ngononophelo kwangaphambi kokumiswa. Ii-Attorney kufuneka zichaze into ekhoyo karhulumente yokwenene, ziqinisekise ukuba iyathintelwa kusini na, ze zifumane umenzi wesithinteli osebenzayo. Amanyathelo angundoqo aquke:

  1. uphando lobume bento esemthethweni: Igunya lokuhambisa ingalo yesizwe okanye into ekhoyo kamasipala? Khangela imimiselo nomthetho wetyala.
  2. kunye neemfuno ezithe ngqo: Umazwe amaninzi afuna isaziso sento ethethwayo phakathi kweentsuku ezingama 60 ukuya kwi-180. Ukungalufumani olu xesha ludla ngokubulala.
  3. Inguqu ze-state controrry surgery: Jonga kurhulumente intengiso yesenzo okanye eminye imimiselo esebenzayo. Umzekelo, i-Civil Act Amalungelo e-1871 (42 U.S.C. . . . . . . . . . .[FLT]] uvumela iisuti ngokuchasene noorhulumente basekuhlaleni, kodwa hayi amatyala, ukwenzela ukuphulwa komgaqo-siseko. Abaphathi bamaqumrhu abanokungeniswa phantsi kwe-19011871,19984.
  4. Imposiso ecacileyo: Kuphephe izityholo ezidibeneyo. Bonisa ukuba ihambo yomzi wogcino ingaphandle komahluko womsebenzi ocacileyo.

Abakhuseli: Ukuqinisekisa nokugcina

Amasebe onikezelo kufuneka asebenzise ukhuseleko oluphezulu kwasekuqaleni, ngokufanelekileyo kwintshukumo yokugxotha. Ukhuselo lunganyuswa phantsi koLawulo loManyano lweProcedura 12(b)(1) ngenxa yokunqongophala kolawulo lwento engundoqo. Iingongoma ezingundoqo zokuzikhusela:

  • ubungqina besakhiwo sombutho: Ama-affidavit abonisa inkxaso yombuso, ukutyunjwa kwamalungu ebhodi yirhuluneli, kunye norhulumente ongenisa ulwakhiwo olunceda ekumiseni ubume bengalo-yomhlaba.
  • Ukuvumelana neenkqubo zentelekelelo: Uninzi lwamacala amangalelwayo ayangaphumeleli kuba ummangali wetyala akafakanga isaziso sexesha elililo.
  • Umsebenzi wobuchule: Ukuba ukuzibeka kucelw'ingxaki sisigqibo somgangatho wokucwangcisa, qinisekisa ukukhusela ukunqanda phantsi komsebenzi ocacileyo karhulumente.
  • Umonakalo we-limit: kwanokuba ukukhuselwa komzimba womntu kunyanzelekile, iikepu zomonakalo zingasetyenziswa. Umzekelo, amazwe amaninzi afumana kwakhona ngokuchasene nezinto zikawonke-wonke ezikhoyo nge R550 000 okanye ngaphantsi.

Uphuhliso lomthetho obalulekileyo

F.D.I.C. v. Meyer (1994)

Ngeli xesha inqaku lokuqala liphawula F.D.C. v. Meyer, ifumana ulwando. Ngelo xesha, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabambelela kwelokuba iFTCA's ingumxhasi wezokhuseleko lwezobuso-mthetho ayinyukeli kwi-fragracy torts. Ukuba umgaqo othe wagunyazisa ulwaphulo-mthetho lwe-FDIC lokufumana amalungelo akhe afanelekileyo. Inkundla yagqiba ukuba iFCA kuphela ukhuseleko lwe-FCA lwasemthethweni, hayi lolwaphulo-mthetho olusemthethweni. Lo mgaqo uyagxekwa ngenxa yeemeko zothutho: ukuba umgaqo wokwaphula umthetho wesine wolwaphulo-mthetho, i-FTCA ayisebenzi; endaweni yoko, i-FFTBFFFFFFFFRN [2] [3] [5]

I-HILLSborough County v. I-Automated Medical Laboratories, Inc. [1985]

Eli tyala lithetha ukuba umxhasi wengingqi wokhuseleko lwezobungangamsha kwi-traki yayo yaphumelela. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yabambelela kwisigqibo sokuba abakhuphi bokhuseleko lobukhosi mabacace kwaye bangabi nakuphikiswa. Lo mgaqo usebenza kumagunya okuthutha jikelele "umgangatho kunye nokupheliswa" igalelo kummiselo wesizwe alizikhuphi ngokuzenzekelayo. Iinkundla ziya kufuna ulwimi olucacileyo.

iSikolo seSizwe kunye neSibhedlele v. Halderman (19984)

Eli tyala liphawula umlinganiselo weSinyuso seshumi elinesithoba kwinkundla yesizwe. Inkundla yalenza ityala livume ukuba inkundla yesizwe ayinakuyalela amagosa karhulumente ukuba athobele umthetho karhulumente. Kwisithuthi, oku kuthetha ukuba ukuba i-patraff ifaka igunya lokuthutha eliqhutywa ngurhulumente kwinkundla yesizwe ngenxa yokwaphula imimiselo yokhuseleko lukarhulumente, inkundla ayimele ivume ukugunyaziswa. Ityala kufuneka lisiwe enkundleni karhulumente.

Owens v. IsiXeko seOklahoma City 2022]

Kweli tyala leSithili leshumi leSithili, umkhweli waphakamisa igunya lokuhambisa isixeko emva kokwenzakala kwengozi yoduladula. Inkundla yahlalutya ukuba igunya lokuthutha laliyingalo yesizwe. Yasebenzisa uvavanyo lwezinga lesithandathu: (1) nokuba urhulumente unokuba uya kusifanelekela umgwebo; (2) inkqubo yequmrhu yemali kunye ne-emali ezimeleyo; (3) nokuba ngaba umntu wenza umsebenzi karhulumente; (4) umlinganiselo wokulawula; (5) nokuba ngaba loo nto ikhoyo yadalwa ngurhulumente; kwaye (6) nokuba ngaba iququlethwe ngurhulumente kwaye ikho. Inkundla yafumanisa ukuba inkqubo yokuthutha isixeko ayiyiyo inkqubo yesizwe elungiselelweyo kwaye ayiyo ingalo gunya lemeko yezolawulo.

Izicelo ezisebenzisekayo zothutho

Ulawulo lwengozi kunye nokuqwalaselwa kwe-inshorensi

Abaphathi bonikezelo badla ngokuthenga i-inshorensi yetyala. Kumaphondo amaninzi, ukuthenga ukhuseleko lwe-inshorensi olulawulayo olusemngciphekweni wenkqubo. Oku kwenza intshukumisa yokuba abameli bagcine intlawulo eyaneleyo. Noko ke, umniki-mali ukwandisa kuphela izibhengezo ezigqunywe yinkqubo. Ukuba igunya lothutho lizikhusela ngokwalo, lingagcina ukhuseleko ngaphandle kokuba umgaqo ulwenzelo lwe-inshorensi lungadibanisene nesiluleko esisemthethweni ukuqinisekisa ukuba iinshorensi ezikhoyo ziquka abaxhasi abachazi-mali abatheneyo nomthetho we-modensi.

Ulungiso lombane

Ngenxa yokuba ukhuseleko oluzimeleyo lungakhusela ngokupheleleyo, abamangalelwa basoloko benokhuselwe ngamandla ekuqaleni kwiliging. Abamangali bangamkela intlawulo esezantsi ukuphepha ubungozi bokugxothwa. Ngokuchaseneyo, ukuba ummangali uyakwazi ukubonisa umkhuphi-mthetho ocacileyo nezibakala ezomeleleyo, isebe lingahlala lizinze ukuze liphephe imizekelo engalunganga okanye izigqibo ezinkulu zabagwebi. Ixabiso lemali yebhenefit calculus lahlukile kwilifata yabucala, apho ummangalelwa emazantsi elayinini ingundoqo iqwalaselwe.

Utshintsho Lomgaqo-nkqubo Notyekelo Lomthetho

Amanye amaphondo aye afudukela kwizixhobo ezibanzi zokukhusela ukunqongophala kwezithuthi zikawonke-wonke, ngokwengxenye ngenxa yokwazi ukuba abakhweli abalimeleyo akufuneka bashiywe ngaphandle konyango. Umzekelo, emva kothotho lweengozi ezihamba ngoololiwe abahamba ngaphantsi komhlaba, indlu yowiso-mthetho yaseNew York yatshintsha umthetho wamagunya kawonke-wonke ukuze yandise iimfanelo ze-Metropolitan Traffic Guide Ague Comfortive Aguence. Amanye amazwe, nokokuba, aye alondoloza ukulondoloza okungqongqo ukukhusela imali kawonke-wonke elinganiselweyo. Amaqela e-akkiniki aphikisa ukuba ukhuseleko lwengozi luxhomekeke ekuthwaleni kwabantu abahlala bengena ezindleleni zikawonke yaye akanandlela zothutho. Uxinelo oluphakathi kwe-fis Can Caristic Active kunye nokufikelela komthetho luyaqhubeka ukumelana nengxoxo yemithetho yomthetho.

Isiphelo

Ukhuseleko lwezono lwezothutho lweshumi elinesine nomthetho oqhelekileyo wenza imekobume entsonkothileyo apho impumelelo ixhomekeke ekugqibeleni okuthe ngqo kwe-procedenti nokuqonda okunzulu kwemithetho engaphandle. Amagunya okuthintelwa kwenqanawa anika ukhuseleko olubalulekileyo, kodwa kwakhona athwele imbopheleleko yokugcina imisebenzi ekhuselekileyo nokusabela kwimiqathango esemthethweni xa abasebenzi bekho. Kubakhweli nakumsebenzi abasebenzi, indlela yokuhlawula inciphileka inciphile ngokungenalusini kodwa ayivalwanga ngokupheleleyo. Njengokuba ukuhamba kwabantu abahambayo kuvela ngezantsi (* ngokunyuka kwe-ipropatitive, ii-ntellitions, i-fings, kunye nentsebenziswano yezolawulo lolawulo lwesizwe iyaqhubeka ilungisa amalungelo nokulungisa iimpilo nabasebenzi abasebenzisa nakusebenza ezi migaqo-mthetho. Ukuhlala besazi ukuba bayazi ukuba bangenelele kwiimeko zezomthetho, kwaye bethetha ukuba bangene kwiimeko zomthetho ezifanelekileyo.