Imfundiso yokhuseleko oluzimeleyo lwesizwe yimfundiso esemthethweni ekhusela oorhulumente kunye namaqumrhu abo ekumangalelweni kwinkundla karhulumente ngaphandle kwemvume yabo. Kumashishini nabantu abasebenza kunye, abasebenzela, okanye abenzakalisa ngamashishini karhulumente (OEs), le mfundiso inika umqobo obalulekileyo. I-SOEs ikwindawo ekhethekileyo esemthethweni; yenza imisebenzi yezorhwebo edla ngokuqulwa ngamashishini azimeleyo kodwa igcina imigaqo-siseko yokukhusela urhulumente. I-Navigatgate igorignome ngokuchasene nezi zixhobo zorhulumente, umthetho womGaqo-siseko, kunye nomthetho othile okhethekileyo ovumela ukuba iqhubeke.

Isiseko somGaqo-siseko soLawulo oluPhakamileyo lweRhulumente

Imfundiso yale mihla yokhuseleko lobuzwilane ikhupha amandla ayo asemthethweni ukusuka kuMphetho-mvakalo weshumi elinesine ukuya kuMgaqo-siseko we-United States, eyagunyaziswa ngo-1795. IsiHlanzi soMdathi sabhaliswa ngokungqalileyo kwisigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo Chisolm v. Georgia[ [1793], apho iNkukholelwa ukuba ummi wabucala umangalela urhulumente kwinkundla yesizwe. Umbhalo weAndexte Wo Amend Remplite unciphene, uchaza kuphela ukuba amandla ejajini akadluliseli zisuswe kwityala lomnye urhulumente okanye imicimbi yamanye amazwe.

Ngaphandle kwale mibhalo ilinganiselweyo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iluthathe uHlaziyo njengoluqulu lomgaqo-siseko obanzi wokhuseleko lwesizwe. Hans v. Louisiana (1890), iNkundla yathi le nkukhusela ibophi ibophelele ukuba le ntambo ifake iisuti kubemi belizwe. Kamva, [[FLT:]] USITIOLETLE VERY of Florida v. [1966], iNkuqinisele imfundiso ngokuwisa umthetho wokuba iBhunganelo ayinakusebenzisa amandla ayo (njengeCandelo luka Claus) kwi-Romatiyolawulo lwesizwe. Le meko ivelisa ukuba umgangatho wolawulo luziko lwemeko olungundoqo lwemeko-mongameleyonke, ilungele ukumanyana kweekhompumenti yomabini yoomthetho nemithetho yolawulo.

Le ngxaki ayiphelelanga, kodwa idala umqobo olawulayo omele ucinywe phambi kwenkundla enokuthi ivane inzuzo yetyala elichasene neSOE. Ukuqonda imida yalo kunye nenxaxhi ngumsebenzi oyintloko wabahlali kulo mhlaba.

Ichaza ungeno lwezwe- lwe- >: "Uvavanyo lwe-Arm karhulumente"

Umbuzo obalulekileyo nakuyiphi na into elawulwa ngurhulumente kukuba ngaba loo ndawo iyafaneleka njengeqela lesizwe. ""isandla sombuso. Ukuba i-SOE ithathwa njengengalo karhulumente, idla ilifa lokukhusela ulawulo lwesizwe. Ukuba ithathwa njengequmrhu likamasipala okanye ulwahlulo lwezopolitiko lwengingqi, ngokuqhelekileyo ayifumani lukhuselo lwePrefection yeshumi eli-11, nangona isenokuba nenye i-sokukhusela okukhoyo phantsi komthetho wesizwe.

Iinkundla zisebenzisa uvavanyo lokulinganisela izinto ezininzi ukufumanisa ukuba into ekhoyo ingalo yombuso. Eyona nto ibalulekileyo ngu ohlawula umgwebo. Ukuba umonakalo uza kuhlawulwa kugcino-mali lwemali yeli lizwe, iqumrhu lisenokuba likhuselekile. Ezinye izinto ezibalulekileyo ziquka:

  • Ulawulo lweSimo: Iqondo lobuveleli kunye nokulawula urhulumente uqhubekeko lwenkqubo kwizinto ezikhoyo kunye nokwenza isigqibo.
  • Uphawu phantsi koMthetho weRhulumente: indlela umthetho wesizwe ochaza ngayo into ekhoyo (umz., njengomncedi worhulumente okanye isixhobo esizimeleyo).
  • [[UMTL:0] Umthombo oDibanisayo: Nokuba lento ixhaswa ngokuyintloko ngemiba yemeko okanye imisebenzi yayo yokubonelela ngengeniso.
  • [[UMTLL:0]Purpose: Ukuba into ekhoyo isebenza kumsebenzi karhulumente okanye kumsebenzi opheleleyo weproprietary/umbutho.

Ku Hess v. IGunya lengingqi Trans-Hudson Corp.[[FT:1] [1994], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagxininisa ukuba nangona oothunywashe abaninzi befanelekile, "izizathu zeshumi elinesibhozo" zoMphetho-wezwe" zokukhusela ugcino-mali nogcino lwesidima sikarhulumente. Imisebenzi esebenzayo esebenza njengeshishini, inyusa ingeniso yayo, kunye nezigwebo zobuso ezingangeni kwimali jikelele yelizwe azifane zikhuseleke. Noko ke, izinto ezilawulwa ngokungqongqo yimeko kwaye zikho ukuze zigcine imigaqo yezomthetho igcine ukhuseleko, kwanaxa zisenza umsebenzi worhwebo.

Indlela Ukungalawuleki Okuyichaphazela Ngayo Ingcamango Yabemi

Xa ukhuseleko oluzimeleyo lusebenza, iziphumo zalo ziyamangalisa. Inkundla yengingqi ayinalo igunya lomntu eliphantsi phezu kwesuti, ithetha ukuba ityala linokurhoxiswa ekuqaleni kanye kwentshukumo yokugxotha phantsi koMthetho 12(b)(1) weMithetho yeFederal yeProcediture. Ukugxothwa kusoloko kunekhethe, kukhupha i-pesenti ekurhoxiseni kwinkundla yesizwe.

Le mpembelelo ifikelela kwiintlobo ezininzi zezibhengezo ezidla ngokuziswa nxamnye neeSOE, eziquka:

  • Ukuqukumbela kweContract: I-SOE engakwaziyo ukuhlawula umthengisi okanye izinto ezingagqibekanga kwisivumelwano isenokuba yiyo ekhusela isuti yomonakalo.
  • [ Intengo zeTort: Umntu owenzakalayo kukungakhathali komqeshwa we-SOE angathintelwa ekufuneni imbuyekezo kwinkundla yesizwe.
  • Ikonsitimatiliti (42 U.S.C. 76): Ummangaleli akanakumangalela umbutho karhulumente okanye i-SOE ngqo yezolahleko zemali kwinkundla yesizwe ngenxa yokwaphulwa kwamalungelo omgaqo-siseko wezwe.
  • [[NTL: 0] Ucalucalulo olungagqibekanga: luthenjiwe phantsi kwamaMelika noMthetho (ADA) okanye ucalucalulo lweminyaka kuMthetho we-SOE (ADEA) ngokuchasene noMthetho we-SOE lungalinganiselwa okanye lungathintelwa ukuba lungekho ukhuthuzo olusemthethweni lweBhunga.

Isitshixo Esikhethekileyo Neziko Lokulwa Nezi ngxaki

Nakubeni kufikelelwa kumgangatho obanzi wokhuselo oluphezulu, kukho iindlela eziliqela ezingafaniyo nezingezo zelitha ezivumela abathathi-nxaxheba ukuba bafune izinto ezichasene namashishini karhulumente.

Ukuhlaziywa kweNkcubeko ngaphantsi kweCandelo 5 loMphetho-mda we-14

Ngoxa iNkundla ingenakukwazi ukukhusela ukuthintelwa kwemida ngaphantsi kweGatya I, ingangaphantsi kweCandelo 5 loMphetho weshumi elinesine. FATRINGrick v. [[FLT:] [1997], iNkundla yathi ngenxa yokuba uLawulo lweMbetho lweshumi elinesine lweSiphene lwenziwe ukuba lusikelwe umda, iNgqungquthela inamandla okunyanzelisa amalungiselelo ayo ngokuvumela iisuti zomonakalo nxamnye namagunya. Ukulungiselela ukusetyenziswa kwe-atrut, iNgqungquthela (1) imele yenze icace i-" kumbhalo we-station, (2) yenza ukwenziwa kolawulo lwamandla ayo eCandelo lwe-5.

Inkundla isebenzise oku kukhethayo. Umzekelo, Tessee v. Lane (2004), iNkundla yaxhasa ukukhutshwa kokhuseleko lweSihloko II se-ADA malunga nokufikelela ngokoqobo kwiinkundla. Noko ke, umgangatho wocalucalulo lwe-Alabama. Garrett [2001], iNkubethelele ukukhutshwa kweSihloko I se-ADA (ucalulo), ifumana ukuba iBhosalwano lwaneleyo lwemeko. Umthetho kufuneka ahlolisise ngenyameko ummiselo okhethekileyo okhoyo ukuba uqulethe ummiselo osebenzayo wokubona i-'unikbgrog.

Imfundiso ye-[FTL: Amagosa elizwe asuselayo eMthethweni ukwenzela uncedo oludaliweyo

Esinye sezixhobo ezinamandla ezichasene nokhuseleko lolawulo lombuso yimfundiso ye-Ex e Young. Iqaliswe ngo-1908, le mfundiso ivumela iqela lobucala ukuba limangalele igosa lesizwe kwinkundla yelizwe ukwenzela ukukhululeka okulindeleyo ukuthintela ulwaphulo-mthetho oluqhubekayo. Intelekelelo esemthethweni yeyokuba igosa lorhulumente ongenzi nto ngokungekho mthethweni alisebenzi ngenxa karhulumente, kwaye ngoko ke uLawulo lweshumi elinesihlanu loMmiselo alusebenzi kwisuti.

Oku kukhetha kubalulekile ekupheliseni amalungelo abantu, umthetho wemekobume, nayiphi na imeko apho umchasi-mthetho efuna ukumisa urhulumente okanye inkqubo yeSOE kunokuba aqokelele umonakalo. Umzekelo, umchasi-mthetho unokumangalela intloko yesibhedlele (i-SOE) ukuphelisa umkhwa ochasene nemithetho yorhulumente. Noko ke, imfundiso ayivumeli ukuba kubekho izibheno zokubuyisa imva, njengomonakalo okanye isinxeba somonakalo.

I-Wheader eKhuselayo neYakhayo

Imo okanye i-SOE yayo ingawuphazamisa umgangatho wokuzikhusela kwikhompyutha kunye nokuvuma ukulingana. Le i-asethi kufuneka ichazwe ngokucacileyo. Indlu yowiso-mthetho yesizwe ingagqithisa umgangatho wokhuselo lomthetho wodidi oluthile lwentengiso, olufana nesivumelwano esichasene nenkqubo yeyunivesithi yelizwe okanye isibhengezo esivela ekusebenzeni kwezithuthi zikarhulumente.

Amanye amatyala aye amisela iTort IZenzo zeMithetho zokuwaphula ngokubanzi amatyala ohlobo oluthile lokungakhathali, nangona ngokufuthi efaka umonakalo ngexabiso eliphantsi. Ngaphezu koko, i-SOE esusa ityala kwinkundla yenkundla yesizwe ukuya kwinkundla yephondo isenokuthathwa njengeyeyona ithintelayo ngenxa yelo tyala, njengoko kuqinisekiswe kwi Lapides v. ibhodi yeRegents System yeYunivesithi yeGeorgia[ (2002]]

Abaququzeleli kufuneka bahlolisise umgaqo-siseko wokusebenza weSOE okanye ummiselo wokuseka. Ii-SOE ezininzi zidalwe ngamalungiselelo acacileyo malunga nokuba zingamangalelwa okanye zingamangalelwa. Igalelo "unyuko lungapheliswa" kwi-tragrammaton yequmrhu lesizwe liyimbonakaliso eyomeleleyo yokungasetyenziswa, kodwa iirejista ezifanayo kwimithetho-siseko zitolikwa ngokucuthekileyo ngokweenkundla zikarhulumente.

Uphando lweNkundla yeRhulumente

Imivalo yeshumi elinesine yoMphetho-Mphetho-mvaba ifanele kwinkundla karhulumente, kodwa ayinyanzelisi ukuba ityala lifakelwe iisuti zemali kwinkundla yephondo. Urhulumente unokuchaza umlinganiselo wokhuseleko lwayo lozilawula kwiinkundla zawo. Ukuba urhulumente uthintelwe ukukhusela urhulumente kwiingxelo zomthetho wephondo, ummeli unokuqhubeka ngokuchasene ne-SOE apho.

Lo ngumahluko obalulekileyo. Phantsi I-Erie Railroup Co. v. Tompkins (1938), iinkundla zephondo ezihlala ngentlobo-ntlobo zisebenzisa umthetho wesigqeba sombuso. Noko ke, uLawulo lweshumi elinesibhozo loMphetho-mda luvalela inkundla yelizwe ukuba ingaliphula-tyala, nokuba intengo isekelwe kumthetho wesizwe kuphela. Ngoko ke i-Plantiff kufuneka iphinde ibekwe kwakhona enkundleni karhulumente. Amazwe amaninzi agcine iimfundiso zawo ezizikhuselayo ezingokwamandla anokuthi zinzile okanye zimxinzele kunomgangatho worhulumente, ngoko umthetho okhethekileyo kufuneka uqwalaselwe ngocoselelo.

UMthetho we-CPFIA (FSIA)

Kubalulekile ukwahlula phakathi kwamashishini karhulumente wasekhaya kunye namashishini karhulumente wasemzini. I-SOES yasekhaya (umz., iqumrhu elibalekayo lephondo laseNew Jersey) lilawulwa liqumrhu lenqanawa leSimende leshumi elinesine kunye ne-U.S. urhulumente we-jurisprudence. UMATAZIN SOES (umz., inkampani ye-oyile ye-oli karhulumente eSaudi Arabia eyenza ishishini kwi-U.S.) ilawulwa nguMongameli we-Immunius Act (FSIA), U.C. 1601611.

IFSIA inikeza ngokucacileyo umahluko ocacileyo womsebenzi ongaqhelekanga , ongavumiyo ukukhusela i-SOEs yangaphandle xa ityala lisekelwe kumsebenzi worhwebo eUnited States. Oku kuchasene kakhulu noMphetho-mvakaliso weshumi elinesine, ongenawo umsebenzi worhwebo jikelele ochaphazelekayo we-SOE. Umchasi-mfashi ucela ulwaphuko lwemali lwasekhaya lwe-SOE yesivumelwano sorhwebo, kanti ummangali-mthetho ujongana nokhuseleko lwentengiso lwe-SOE yenye yangaphandle efuna ungquzukiswano olufanayo.

Utyekelo lweNkundla ePhakamileyo noPhuhliso lwaNgoku

Izibuko leNkundla Ephakamileyo elikumgangatho ophezulu lisasebenza, yaye izigqibo zakutshanje zinyanzelisa ukuncitshiswa komzimba karhulumente kwiimeko ezithile.

. Inkundla iqiqa ukuba xa iUnited States isebenzisa amandla ayo omgaqo-siseko wokugweba, amaphondo anikezela ukhuseleko lwayo kwi "Iplani yeNgqungquthela". Le mida ichaza ukuba le mithetho ilawula ukhuseleko lolawulo lwayo lolawulo oluphezulu. Inkundla iqiqa ngelithi xa iUnited States isebenzisa amandla ayo omgaqo-siseko wokugweba, amazwe anikezela ngokuzikhusela kwawo kwi-"iplani yeNgqungquthela".

.ISebe leTexas loKhuseleko loLuntu [202], iNkundla yasebenzisa ingcamango efanayo "yokuyila" kwiNkcubeko yeeNkonzo eziFanekileyo kunye neRescreenment Rights Act (USERRA). INkundla yathi iTexas yayingengomgono oziswe ngumqeshi wesizwe phantsi koMSEBESTARRA ngenxa yokuba igunya likarhulumente elisemthethweni kukhuseleko lwesizwe kunye nemisebenzi yomkhosi kufuneka ukuba kuvunyelwene ngokupheleleyo oku kuthethwa kwemiqathango.

Ezi meko ziphawula intsingiselo ekhulayo: xa ukhuseleko lwezolawulo lwesithethe luhlala lunamandla ukwenzela iimbambano zentengiso eziqhelekileyo, lunokuba sengozini enkulu xa urhulumente ebala amandla omgaqo-siseko wesizwe (njengendlela yokukhusela yesizwe, ulawulo lwezorhwebo lwamazwe aphakathi, okanye ummandla obalulekileyo ukwenzela imisebenzi kawonke-wonke . Abahlali-mkhosi kufuneka bakhangele ulwando oluthe vetshe "lomthetho" okanye "iplani yeNdibano" engaphandle.

Iindawo Zokudityaniswa KweeAttorney

Phambi kokuba bafake isuti ngokuchasene nequmrhu elikholelwa ukuba lishishini likarhulumente, amagqwetha kufuneka aqhube uhlalutyo olungqongqo lwangaphambi kweli nqaku:

  1. Indawo eqinisekisiwe yeQumrhu: Misa ukuba lento ikhoyo ingalo karhulumente. Hlola isiseko semithetho, iindlela zenkxaso-mali, kunye nomgangatho wokulawula kwesizwe. Ukuba iqumrhu lingumbutho kamasipala okanye isithili soncedo lwasekuhlaleni, ukulondolozwa kwemida yeshumi elinesixhenxe kweNgqino yokuLayishwa akusebenzi.
  2. [[NTL:0] Ichaza isizathu seNkxaso yeNkqutyana: Ukuba ityala livela phantsi komthetho worhulumente, qinisekisa ukuba iKhomishini inegunya elifanelekileyo lokukhusela ukukhusela ukuma kwemeko. Ukuba iqhayiya lingumthetho karhulumente ochazayo (umz., ukwaphulwa kwesivumelwano), qwalasela ukuba urhulumente uluthintele na ukhuseleko kwiinkundla zakhe.
  3. [[NTLA: 0] Derming iForum efanelekileyo: Ngamanye amaxesha ekuphela kweforum yinkundla karhulumente. Musa ukuthathatha inkundla yesizwe ifanelekile kuba nje elityala libandakanya umbuzo karhulumente. Khangela umthetho karhulumente kwiyongamelelo yokhuseleko ngokunjalo.
  4. Funa Intelekelelo yeProspect Yoncedo: Ukuba umonakalo wemali uthintelwe, qwalasela ukuba intengo ingabuyiselwa kuncedo olulindelekileyo kumphathi-rhulumente phantsi . Oku kufuna ukuchaza ukwaphulwa okuqhubekayo komthetho wezwe.
  5. Iskrini seWaiver: Jonga "iintambo zentambo ze-" kwimiqathango yento eyenzayo. Lungiselela ukuba iqumrhu likhe labekwa kwinkundla yequmrhu ngaphandle kokuphakamisa ukukhusela ukukhusela.

Isiphelo

Ukhuseleko lwezokongamela lwesizwe luhlala lungenye yezona mfundiso zintsonkothileyo nezibalulekileyo kwilixa eliphambili. Kubo basukelayo ngokuchasene namashishini karhulumente, ukhuseleko aluyosiphelo esifileyo, kodwa lufuna ulawulo olulunono lwemithetho yesizwe neyorhulumente. Umahluko phakathi komonakalo kunye nokukhululeka, ulwimi olukhethekileyo lwemimiselo karhulumente, kunye nesakhiwo esikhethekileyo se-SOE ngokwaso konke kugqiba ukuba imeko inokwenzeka kusini na. Njengoko izigqibo zeNkuNkundla Ephakamileyo zakutshanje ziqhubeka zicombulula imida yomthetho-mthetho-siseko, ukuhlala kwezi ndawo zizimele zilungelelene mithetho kubalulekile ukuze kusebenze iziko zezorhwebo ezilawulwa ngurhulumente.