Table of Contents

Isiseko Samalungelo Abemi Embali

Xa iBhili yamaLungelo yavunywa ngowe-1791, yayiquka izindululo zokuqala ezilishumi zomGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. Injongo yayo ephambili yayikukunciphisa amandla karhulumente omtsha ngokuchaza inkululeko ekhethekileyo yomntu ngamnye: inkululeko yokuthetha, yonqulo, yokushicilela, yokuhlanganisa, neyokubongoza; ilungelo lokuphatha izixhobo; ukukhusela ekuphenjelweni okungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhwaleka; nokukhusela ekucinyweni ngokufanelekileyo kwisohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nesingaqhelekanga, phakathi kwabanye,. Ngelo xesha, ezi zithembiso zasebenza kurhulumente worhulumente, hayi kumazwe, kwaye abazange bathethe ngokungqalileyo ngamalungelo amabhinqa, amancinane, okanye amanye amaqela acetyo. Kodwa ulwimi olu luluvolu hlobo lunye olunelwayo-andreand-b kunye nolulo didi olunokukhuselwa kamva.

IBhili yamaLungelo yantlandlolo yaphenjelelwa ziingcinga zobuGcisa zoluHlulo-lwazi njengoJohn Locke kunye neBhili yamaNgesi yamaLungelo ka-1689. Abalawuli abanjengoJames Madison bazibona ezi ziko njengekhusi lokukhusela ekuchaseni ingcinezelo. Noko ke, ibutho ababelawula lalingalingani ngokunzulu: ubukhoboka babungasemthethweni, abafazi babengenakuvota, kwaye iimfaneleko zempahla zazingakuthinteli ukuthatha inxaxheba kwezopolitiko. IBhili yamaLungelo alizange liziqeqeqeshe ezi zakhiwo, kodwa ladala amagama asemthethweni aza kusetyenziswa izizukufuna ukulingana. Kwiinkulungwane ezimbini ezalandelayo, abameli, amagqwetha, kunye nabagwebi babeza kwakhona babenokuchaza ukurhoxanduswa kwamalungelo abantu base-Afrika, abafazi, abaphambukeli, abaphambukeli bonqulo, abantu ngabanye, abantu ngabanye, kunye nabantu abakhubazekile.

Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo Nobukhulu Baso Bantlandlolo

Ukuze kuqondwe indlela iBhili yamaLungelo anda ngayo, umntu kufuneka aqale aqonde imiqathango yakhe yasekuqaleni. UMthetho wokuqala Ohlaziyiweyo waqinisekisa ukuma kwenkululeko kodwa awuthintelanga oorhulumente belizwe ekucutheni intetho ngezantsi kodwa kwafuneka ukuba kufakwe imfundiso kamva. UHlaziyo Lwesibini lwakhusela ilungelo lokugcina nokuphatha iingalo, kodwa ngenkulungwane ye-19, ilungelo lokungavunyelwa kwabantu abaNsundu ngemithetho esesikweni. UMthetho weSine WesiHlaliso wakwalela wakwalela ukuphengulula okungekho ngqiqweqweni nokuxwa okungekho ngqiqweni, kodwa ukhuseleko lwawo lwalusoloko lungahoywa kwimo yabantu abakhotyo okanye kwizivumelwano zempahla nakumazwe amaninzi.

Noko ke, iBhili yamaLungelo yayinembewu yobuGawulayo bobuNtlanganiso. ISiminkile soLawulo seMigaqo-siseko, amalungelo athile, asizukuthathwa njengechasa okanye ihluze abanye abantu.” Eli binzana livunyiweyo livumela abameli ukuba baphikise ukuba amalungelo angenazikhundla azimeleyo, njengokuzilawula, ukulingana komzimba, nokulingana komtshato. UMthetho weshumi ohlaziyiweyo ogcinelwe igunya kumazwe nabantu, amaqela alwela amalungelo abantu asebenzisa ukuphikisa izenzo zasekuhlaleni kwaye kamva avumela abameli ukuba baphikise ukungenelwa kwemithetho xa imicimbi ichasene amalungelo asisiseko.

Uhlaziyo: Ukwandisa umsebenzi

Ukuhlaziywa koMphetho wokuHlaziya emva kweMfazwe yamakhaya kwabuguqula ngokusisiseko unxulumano phakathi kweBhili yamaLungelo namalungelo abantu. IsiHlaliso seshumi elinesithathu (1865) saphelisa ubukhoboka. UMthetho ohlaziyiweyo we-145th wamisela ubuhlanga bobuzibulo, waqinisekisa ukuba bungakhuseleki ngokomthetho, kwaye wawalela amazwana okungahluzi nabani na wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo. Uhlaziyo lweshumi elinesihlanu lonyaka (170) lwalwalela ucalulo-calulo. Oku kuguqulwa kobuhlanga akuzange kuthathe indawo yeBhili yamaLungelo kodwa kunokwandisa ukufikelela kwayo.

Icandelo 1 loMphetho-mva weshumi elinesine weSigqibo libaluleke kakhulu ngenxa yokuba libeka imida ngqo kurhulumente wesizwe: “Awukho uRhulumente oya kwenza okanye onyanzelisa nawuphi na umthetho oza kudibanisa amalungelo okanye ukugonyelwa kwabemi baseUnited States; okanye nawuphi na uRhulumente ongamhlutha na umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efunekayo yomthetho; okanye akhanyele nabani na okwigunya lakhe ukhuseleko olulinganayo lwemithetho." Olu lwimi luza kunikela igwebo lokufaka uBhikicalo lwamalungelo abemi baseUnited States okanye ukuqaphela amalungelo amatsha abalulekileyo ekulinganayo. Umzekelo, uClaviso [[FLT]

Ixesha lokuphinda ivuselelwe kwakhona kwabonwa ukudlula kwezenzo zamalungelo abantu, njengoMthetho wamaLungelo waMaLungu ka-1866 kunye noMthetho wamaLungelo wabemi bonyaka ka-1875, owawufuna ukunyanzelisa ukubuyiselwa. Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawabetha phantsi amalungiselelo angundoqo kwi [ Ityala lokubulala iNdlu-Ndlu [1873]] kunye [FLT]] ne- I-Civil Chaless [ [1883]), ilinganisela umlinganiselo wokhuseleko lwenkuselo yorhulumente. Izakuba ithathe malunga nenkulungwane phambi kweenkundla ezipheleleyo ezihlalo zemithetho-siseko.

Imfundiso Yokwahlukana

Enye yezona ndlela zibalulekileyo zomthetho zokwandisa amalungelo abantu ngeBhili yamaLungelo yimfundiso [[FLT: 0] enxulumeneyo. Le ngcamango isemthethweni ithi iSiko leMfundo ka-Celas ye-14th Amendment yenza amalungiselelo amaninzi eBhili yamaLungelo asebenzayo kurhulumente. Ngaphambi kokuba iququzelelwe, abantu bangavavanya izenzo zorhulumente kuphela phantsi kweBhili yamaLungelo; amanani ayekhululekile ukumisela imiqathango yokuthetha, ukuseka unqulo, okanye ukwenza uphando olungekho ngqiqweni ngaphandle kokuba imigaqo yabo siqu ilwahlulele.

Ukuqala ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yama-20, iNkundla Ephakamileyo ngokuthe ngcembe yaquka amalungelo akhethekileyo. Getlow v. New York [1925], iNkundla yathi inkululeko yokuthetha yaba yinkululeko esisiseko ekhuselweyo kwizwelommeli elingu 149. [[FLT:] [[FLT]] [12] mbreak]/2] meyam-MEN] [[FLT] [12] [1931] [193], inkululeko yomatshini yokushicilela yafakwa.[FOLT] Inkqubo yaqhubeka ukutyhubela kuma-1960 phantsi kweMongameli eMGenega yomthetho: [[3] [3] [inani elipheleleyo kulawulo olusezantsi lomthetho ongekho mthethwe mthethweni] [[5] [4].[4] [umbanyunyunyu wolu , i-G.Nt.G.G.[4]

Imfundiso yokuququzelela yayisisisixhobo esigxekayo samaqela asezantsi kuba yayiwavumela ukuba avavanye imithetho yocalulo, enjenge-Jim Crow Confection kunye noluthintelo lwesizwe kumtshato wezizwe ngezizwe. Ngaphandle kokudibanisa, imithetho yesazinge efana Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo [1954] inokuba nempembelelo encinci kuba yayixhomekeke kuKhuselo oluPhakamileyo lweDimali yePrimente ye 149th Amendmendmedicam, esebenza ngqo xa ichaza. Kodwa kwakhona iquka ukuba ukuphulwa kwemithetho yenkululeko yokuthetha ngokukhululekile, indibano, kunye nenkululeko yonqulo yayinokulungiswa.[FLT] (1954) imfuneko yokuba ilungele amalungelo abantu.

Amatyala Ayintloko ENkundla Ephakamileyo Anyusa Amalungelo Abemi

[[FLT: 0] Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954) Esi sigqibo savumelanayo savakalisa ukuba ucalulo lohlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke lungahlangani, sibhukuqa imfundiso “olulinganayo kodwa” evela i-Bluepher v. Ferguson [1896]]. INkundla yaqinisekisa ukuba abantwana abamnyama bahlulwe amathuba alinganayo emfundo, iphazamisa i-145 ISikhuseli soMgangatho se-Expressity Claus. Isigqibo asizange sixhomekeke ngqo kwiBhosa kwiiNkatle ezingombukunye ezithelelwa phantsi kwemithetho yoluntu. [FLT:] [FLD]

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)[FLT] Clarence Earl Gideon, indoda elihlwempu eyayimangalelwe ngokuqhekeza kwigumbi lokuhlala, yakhatywa igqwetha ngenxa yokuba umthetho waseFlorida kuphela owanikela isiluleko kumatyala equmrhu. Wabhenela ukuba uSindululo seSithandathu soMmiselo-Mmiselo sinelungelo lokucebisa iinkundla zikarhulumente ngokugqitha kuMphetho-weshumi elinesine. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yavuma, imisela ukuba amagqwetha kufuneka anikezele abamangali kwiimeko ezingoonobujaji abaphambili. Esi sigqibo sanweba sanweba ngokuphawulekayo kumthetho owehla ngentlalo-lukileyo, i-odwa neqela lobuhlanga elijongenezolwaphulo-mthetho ngaphandle kolawulo lolwaphulo-mthetho. Isigqibo sokuhlala kumgangatho ophezulu wendlela yokuzinziswa kweminye imicimbi, njengoko kuthenjiwe, njengoko kuthenjiwe ezinye iimeko.

[[FLT: 0] Ityala elibandakanya uRichard Long, indoda emhlophe noMildred Jeter, obetshate eWashington, D.C. , iNkundla yawisa umthetho wesizwe ovala i-octal. Ityala libandakanya uRichard Jeter, umfazi oMnyama, owatshate eWashington, D.C, kwandule ukutyholwa ngolwaphulo-mthetho eVirginia phantsi kwendlela ye-Rokinmental Act. INkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho wokuba umtshato unelungelo elingundoqo kwaye ucalucalulo lwezizwe kwimithetho yomtshato lwaphula umthetho wombini uMxokelelwano ka Clauslaus kunye nokhuseleko olulinganayo lwe-145.[5] [5]

[[NTLT: 0] Ityala [[FLT] ikholelwa ukuba ilungelo lokukhupha isisu likwi-

iBhunga lamalungelo obuqu, eliboniswa yiBill of Rights (ingakumbi iBhili Yokuqala, Eyesine, Eyesihlanu, Eyesine, EyesiPromo Esinesine), ikhusela isigqibo somfazi sokuqhomfa phambi komntwana okhulelweyo. Ngoxa le sigqibo se-20222 kwi- i-Dobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization of Amen [[FLT:] [3] iphembelela namanye amalungelo omgaqo omgaqo ogunyazweyo ekuphumeni isisu, [[[FLT][FFL:]] [FFLT]] [5] [4] [evolu hlobo olunjalo, [3] [3], u-FFONT] oluthenjiweyo, [3]

[[Nkundla: 0] INkundla yagxininisa ukuba umtshato ulelona siseko solungelelwano lwentlalo, kweli tyala lophawu, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi izibini ezingokwasemgangathweni zinelungelo elisisiseko lokutshata phantsi kweNdlela ye-145th Amendmentmentation and Finetic Claises. Inkundla yagxininisa ukuba umtshato lisiseko solungelelwano lwentlalo lwentlalo kwaye ukungavumi ukuba izibini ezingozohlukeneyo zithoba isidima ne-endleko. [[FLT:] OFLT] uwe [FLT: 3] amalungelo andandayo eLTQ+ abantu ngabanye ngokuqinisekisa ufikelelo olulinganayo olusemthethweni, olusemthethweni, noluneenzuzo yezoqoqosho lomtshato. Isigqibo esigunyazwe kwimithetho ephambili yemithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho (F.Foctive [F.]]]][5]) kuMandlandlandlandlandla amanani amaqela omthetho asemthethweni athenjiweyo, avunyiweyokunye avu

Ezinye izithintelo ezibalulekileyo ziquka Bostock v. Clayton County [2020], eyatolika isiHloko VII samaLungelo aBaluleki uKwahlula ucalulo ngesiseko sembonakalo yesondo kunye nobufana , ```''''''''. Iqumrhu lephondo. [iii-Slarm' v v. Raker[ (2013]) ithene uMthetho we-Voling Rights Actal Act ka 1965, ikhumbuza abaxhasi ukuba ukukhuselwa kwemithetho elinganayo yokhuseleko efunyanwa kuMgaqo-siseko wamalungelo kunye ne-amva-mandement ifuna ukuqwalal'.

Ucelomngeni Lwanamhlanje Neengxaki Eziqhubekayo

Namhlanje, iBhili yamaLungelo iyaqhubeka isebenza njengekhaka nekrele lamaqela aphantsi. AbaLawuli bakhankanya uMphengululo wokuqala wokukhusela ilungelo labo lokuqhayisa, ukuhambahamba, nokugxeka ucalucalulo. UMthetho wesine ucelw'ucelw'ucelw'ucelw'ucelw'ukujongana nolawulo oluluntlukwano kunye nokukhuthaza ubuhlanga. Umthetho owesi-Heighth Amend Refective owenziwe ngenkohlakalo nangesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga usetyenziswa ukuphikisa ukugwetywa okugqithisileyo, iimeko zentolongo, kunye nesigwebo sokufa njengoko sisetyenziswa kwiqela elincinane. Ushenxiso lwesibini lucelwa ngamaqela amaqela angena emacaleni asezantsi, afana nabadubuli bompu, ukuphikisa ukufikelela ekuzidubeni ngemilo lwemipu ezahlukahlukeneyo, nangona oku kusenziwa ngokuzigweba ngokweedefa.

Ngaphandle kwezi nkqubela, imiqobo emininzi ishiyekile. [[[FLT: 0] Amalungelo asoloko ehlaselwa ngemithetho ye-id yevota, i-gerrymander, kunye nokususwa kwemisongo evotayo echaphazela ngokungenakulinganiswa imimandla yemibala. [[[FLT:] Ilungelo lokucebisa [[FLT:] ikhuselwe kunqulo [[FLT:]] isetyenziswe zombini ukukhusela ukholo oluncinci nokuthethelela i-LT[FLT:] idla ngokuhlonelwa ekuchaseni, kunye neenkqubo zokukhusela uwonke phantsi kwemibala enzima. [[FFFLT:]

Abaxhasi nabameli basemthethweni bayaqhubeka bethembela kwimigaqo efakwe kwiBhili yamaLungelo ukunyanzela ukulingana nokusesikweni. Umzekelo, [[FLT:] IsiHlaliso sokuqala sikhusela ilungelo lokuhlanganisa, elaliluxanduva lweBlack Life Confect eyatshayela uhlanga ngo-2020. [[FLT:] [FLT]] umphetho wesiHlolo [ usetyenziso lokungavavanyiselwa ukucel'iiiiiiiiintelo neenkqubo zamapolisa ezijoliswe kwimiba nje encinane. [[FLT] [5] umgaqo othenjiweyo nongaqondakaliyo. [FLT]

Iinkqubo zamalungelo abantu zamazwe ngamazwe zikwachaphazela utoliko lwasekhaya. Nangona iBhili yamaLungelo yase-U.S. imdala kunamalungelo amaninzi akhoyo, izivumelwano ezifana noMvumelwano wezizwe ngezizwe wamalungelo abantu, kunye neNkundla yokushenxiswa kwamalungelo abantu eNtshona Koloni (ICCPR) kunye neSivumelwano sokushenxiswa Kwamalungelo esizwe onke (CEPR) kunye neSivumelwano sokuXhotyiswa kweMiciso-Luntu Yohlanga Lonke (CERD) sinikela igunya elithe nkqikelelwa-thelekelelo lokwandisa ukhuseleko. Noko ke, i-U.S.A.A.A.A.A.

Iingxaki Zomda

Amaqela agwetyelweyo asoloko ejongene neenkqubo ezingenayo zocalulo ```````RET'', ubufanasini, indlela yokukhetha, ukukhubazeka ngokwesondo, ubume bokufuduka. IBhili yamaLungelo ayithethi ngokucacileyo impatho yokudibana kwemitshato, kodwa iinkundla ziqalisile ukuqwalasela indlela ezixhathisa ngayo iimpawu ezininzi ezikhuselekileyo. Umzekelo, Hernez v. Robles[FLTQ+1] [200] [2006], iNkuNkulwano yezibheno oluNxina lwezibheno oluthi (AD) noMthetho ka-1979 wokuNXalwam, kodwa indlela yesizwe elinganayo, kodwa iyakwazi ukuqhuba imigaqo yemigaqo elinganayo yemigaqo ye-GOLT [FLT] kunye ne-FMGPrencelF].[5] Iinkonzo ezicacileyo ezicacileyo ze-LFodvolueventi.[9]

Isiphelo

IBhili yamaLungelo, ekuqaleni ekwakuthintelwa igunya likarhulumente, iye yaguquka yaba luxwebhu oluphilayo olukhusela inkululeko yabantu kwaye lwenza ukuba kubekho inkqubela engokwentlalo. NgoMphetho-ntle weshumi elinesine, ngokubandakanya imfundiso, kunye nokucaciswa kwengxelo eqingqiweyo, iinguquko zokuqala ezilishumi zokuqala ziye zasetyenziswa ukwandisa amalungelo abantu base-Afrika, abafazi, iLGBTQ+ abantu abambalwa bonqulo, abantu abanobuphene, abantu abaneziphene, namanye amaqela aphantsi kwemigangatho. Kodwa umzabalazo usuka kude. Isizukulwana ngasinye kufuneka siwachaze kwakhona la malungelo ngokulula imingeni emitsha kwaye siqinisekise ukuba izithembiso zenkululeko, ukulingana, nokuhlonipheka kwabantu bonke. Njengoko iNkundla Ephakamileyo iqhubeka ibumba-mthetho, uBill unelungelo lokulwela uluntu, i-ligator, kunye nolwandombutho eliqhelekileyo.

[[UMTLL:0] ukwenzela ukufunda okuqhubekayo:[[UMTL_1]

  • [[UMKCU] Oovimba Bobuzwe: IBhili yamaLungelo
  • [[UMTHETHO: 0]I-Oyez: Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo
  • [[UMTHL:0] Iqumrhu loLwimi loLwimi loMgaqo-siseko: Imfundiso yoHlahlo-magama
  • [[UMTL: 0] ACLU: Roe v. Ukuvuleka Nokuvelisa Imfihlo [[FLT: 1]
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (Izimvo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo)