Inkqubo yomthetho yaseMerika ihleli kwisiseko soxinzelelo: umsebenzi karhulumente ukugcina ucwangco kunye nelungelo lomntu lokukhululeka kurhulumente ophathwe kakubi. Ukudibana kwamalungelo abantu kunye nomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho kulapho olu xinezeleko luba nentsingiselo ekhawulezileyo. Yindawo enzima, edla ngokuphikisana apho ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko lumelana nomatshini wobupolisa, wokutshutshisa, wokuchasa kunye nesohlwayo. Eli nqaku lihlola indlela ukusukela amalungelo abantu okuye kwayila ngayo imigaqo esisiseko yomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho, livavanya iimfazwe zembali eziye zabangela unxibelelwano, kwaye livavanya ucelomngeni lwangoku oluqhubeka luvavanya ulungelelwano lwezobulungisa.

Imbali Yamalungelo Abantu Nomthetho Wezaphuli - mthetho

Indaleko yamalungelo abantu e-United States ayifani nembali yomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho. Kubantu abaphantsi, inkqubo yobulungisa isoloko iyisixhobo esiphambili sengcinezelo. Ukuqonda lo mongo kubalulekile ekuqondeni ukungalungi okunzulu okukhoyo namhlanje.

Ifa Lobukhoboka Nohlaziyo Lwe - 13

Ukupheliswa kobukhoboka ngoMphetho-mva we-13 ngo-1865 kwaba linyathelo elikhulu eliphambili, kodwa umbhalo wayo wawunento enzima enokuthi ibe neziphumo ezinzulu kumthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho. Isivumelwano sithi: "Abukho ubukhoboka okanye ubukhoboka obuzenzekelayo, ngaphandle kwesisohlwayo solwaphulo-mthetho [[ apho iqela liza kubekwa ityala..." eli liza kuba linemiqathango ekhethekileyo lenze indlela esemthethweni yenkqubo yokulawula inkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho yolwaphulo-mthetho ukuze libe sisixhobo sokulawula intlalo-mthetho. Kwiziphumo ezikhawulezi mfazwe, amaphondo "Imithetho e-Greain" eyathiwenziswayo yemihla ngemihla yenkululeko yama-Afrika, ekhululekileyo, ebanzi, engekho msebenzi, okanye indibano ekhululekileyo. [i-F]

UJim Crow, Ukudideka, Nokwenziwa Kolwaphulo - mthetho Lobomi Obumnyama

Emva kokuwa kwe-Reconstructon, i-Jim Crow yabona ukudilizwa kwamalungelo abantu ngokucwangcisiweyo ngemiqathango esemthethweni neyongezelelekileyo. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi- Planelly v. Ferguson [1896] lityala eliphawulayo eliye ladibanisa ngokucacileyo amalungelo abantu kunye nomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho: uHomer Plesby wabanjwa ngenxa yokwaphula umthetho we-Louisiana Car, kwaye iNkundla ixhase umthetho phantsi kwe-"Religion kodwa i-njika. Le meko ibonakalisa indlela imimiselo yolwaphulo-mthetho eyayisetyenziswa ngayo ukunyanzela i-mthetho yobuhlanga.

Ngaphezu koko, inkqubo yobulungisa yabagwebi yayisisixhobo esiphambili ekuqhelani kwezobupolitika. Imithetho ejolise amatyala amancinane, njengetyala elincinane okanye ukungohlwayi, yayisetyenziselwa ukuxhobisa ukuvalwa kwamalungelo ovota okusisigxina. Lo mkhwa, wenzelwe ngokucacileyo ukushiya amaBlackvota, waxhaswa ziinkundla ezininzi zikarhulumente kwaye wahlala usebenza kwizizukulwana. Amaqela alwano afana neKu Klux Klan esebenza ngokungenasohlwaywa, njengoko ukutshutshiswa kwamalungelo asemthethweni e-Afrika ngokuchaswa kwetyala lamalungelo abantu ngokufana . United States v. Cruikshank[FLT: 76] [18], eyayikholelwa ukuba amalungelo eenkqubo e-14 yokuLamlamfaza akhuselweyo kuphela, hayi ngasese. Okushicineyo okungekho mthethwenogaqo-mthetho-mgamgamganga kumazwe aseAfrika atheneyo kusetyenziswa ngendlela elungelene enye yemithetho elungelelamane enye i-mthetho: [Fognogno, enye, enye emhlophe, enye

IQumrhu Lamalungelo Abemi: Ucelomngeni Kulungelelwano Lwezaphuli - mthetho

I-Civil Rights Movement of the 1950 neyoo 1960 yayingumba wokungqubana ngqo nomthetho ongekho sikweni. Abasebenzi benza ngabom izenzo zokungathobeli kwabemi, ukuhamba ngenkululeko, kunye nohambo-hambo , ezathi zacaciswa njengezigwebi zolwaphulo-mthetho (ukunyathela, ukuphazamisa uxolo, indibano engekho mthethweni). Icebo yayikukuzalisa iintolongo nokubhenca ukungabikho kwemithetho yobuhlanga noluntu.

Impumelelo yenhlangano yakhokelela kutshintsho lwemithetho-siseko eyathi ngokusisiseko yalungisa umthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho. UMthetho wamaLungelo oMgaqo-siseko ka-1944 walwalela ucalulo kwizindlu zoluntu kunye nomsebenzi. UMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1965 waphelisa imiqobo yokuvota. Ngaphaya kwezi ndawo zowiso-mthetho, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yakhupha uthotho lwemithetho eyathi yandisa amalungelo amangalelwayo, isabela ngqo kwinkqubo exhaphazekileyo kaJir. [FLT:] Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo yemfundo (1954) imele ivakalise ukurhoxabela kwamapolisa ukuba amele anikezele ityala lawo amapolisa anikezele ekuwamkeleni amalungelo awo.[FLT], kunye namatyala afana [FLD] .[FLD]v [FFFFF]]

Indima Yamalungelo Abemi Kumthetho Wanamhlanje Wakwaphula Umthetho

IBhili yamaLungelo, ingakumbi eyesine, eyesiHlanu, eyesiThathu, neyesi-8h IsiHlanu, inika ukukhuselwa kwenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho lwale mihla. Ezi migaqo yokhuseleko aziyoengcamango ezingekho ngqiqweni; ziimfundiso ezinyanzelekileyo ezisemthethweni ezilawula ihambo yamapolisa, imicimbi yokuchophela ityala, kunye nezilungiso. Umthetho wamalungelo abemi unika inkqubo ngezantsi (ngokufuthi ngo-42,S.C.C. Icandelo 1983/abantu abafuna ukubuyiselwa xa ezi zikhuselwa ngokusemthethweni zichasene.

Inkqubela Efanelekileyo: Isiseko Sobulungisa

I-Gast Processol Claus ye-14 Communiment iqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu uza kuhluthwa "ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho." Lo mgaqo ngunobangela wetyala lolwaphulo-mthetho olusesikweni. INkundla Ephakamileyo iqulel'iintloko "ifake" inkoliso yokhuseleko lwamalungelo omntu ukuze isetyenziswe kumaphondo ngala manqaku.

  • Umthetho wobuphengululi — Mapp v.Ohio (1961): Ikhaya leDolree Map' lahlolwa ngokungekho mthethweni ngamapolisa efuna ukuqhushumbiswa. Inkundla yagqiba ukuba ubungqina obufunyanwa ngokuchasene nokhuseleko loMphengululo-Mphetho-mva-mva wesine ongekho ngqiqweni bungasetyenziswa enkundleni yephondo. Oku kugunyazisa abamangalelwana bemi bolwaphulo-mthetho ukuba bavavanye ihambo engafanelekanga yamapolisa.
  • Ulungele ukucebisa . Wainwright v. Wainwright (1963): Clarence uGidiode wayengumntu olihlwempu ogwetyelwe ukuqhekeza eFlorida. Wakhanyelwa ukuba azimele. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yenza isigqibo sokuba uGawulayo weSithandathu unelungelo lokucebisa lilungelo elingundoqo elisetyenziswa kumazwe, elifuna ukuba amagqwetha anikezele abamangaleli kwiimeko zetyala ze-fallon. Le meko yaguqula inkqubo yokhuselo lukawonkewonke, nangona isithembiso sayo singekafezeki.
  • Ityala elidala "ukuyeka nokukhetha", ukuvumela amapolisa ukuba abeke umntu ngokufutshane ngokuthandabuza okufanelekileyo kolwaphulo-mthetho kunye nokuwabeka phantsi ukuze akhuseleke. Ngelixesha lenziweyo igosa, lo mthetho ugxekwe kakhulu ngendima yalo kwi-profilifing ye-uhlanga, njengokuba ugcino-lwazi lubonisa ukuba abantu abambalwa baphantsi ngokugqithisileyo kwezi ndawo.

Ukukhuselwa Ngokulinganayo Nokulwa Neenyama

ISichibiyelo se-14 se-Applicance Protection Claus sigunyazisa ukuba abantu abakuzo iimeko ezifanayo baphathwe ngokulinganayo ngumthetho. Kumthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho, lo mgaqo uye waba ngowona siseko ubalulekileyo ekucel ’ umngeni ucalucalulo lwenkqubo ngalo lonke ixesha lenkqubo. Umgangatho wokuhlola ukwahlulwa kobuhlanga ngu-"uhlalutyo olucacileyo," olona mgangatho uphezulu wohlalutyo lwezomthetho.

  • [[FLT: 0] Ukukhetha okungagqibekanga — Batson v. Kentucky (1986): INkundla yagqiba ukuba abatshutshisi abanakuyisebenzisa imingeni yokukhulula abachopheli bejaji ngokubhekiselele kuhlanga. Lo mba wesithintelo wenziwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba iijaji zimele icandelo elifanelekileyo lengingqi. Noko ke, umthwalo wokungqina ucalucalulo ngemposo uhlala uphezulu, kwaye ukukhulula kweentlanga kukhetho lomgwebi uyaqhubeka.
  • Imilinganiselo edibanisayo: Igalelo loKhuselo olulinganayo lisetyenziselwa ukuvavanya imithetho yokugweba echaphazela ngokungenakulinganiswa amaqela amancinane. I 100:1 umahluko phakathi kwecrack negama eligwebayo elingumgubo wecocaine ngumzekelo ocacileyo womthetho onempembelelo egqithisileyo yobuhlanga, ekugqibeleni ebhekiswe ngumthetho weFair Sevensions Act ka-2018 kunye noMthetho wokuqala we-2018.

Amalungelo Abamangalelwayo: Inqanda Igunya Lelizwe

ISihlaziyi seSithandathu sinikela imvume yamalungelo akhethekileyo alungiselelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba ityala liza kuchotshelwa ngokusesikweni, aquka ilungelo lokuchotshelwa kwetyala ngokukhawuleza nangokulawulwa ngurhulumente, ukuxelelwa izityholo, ukumangalelwa ngamangqina nokuncedwa. UMthetho-wiso-mthetho wesiXhosa uthintela ukusetyenziswa kwebheyile eninzi nesohlwayo esingekho ngqiqweni.

  • Izambuku ze-United States kunye ne-Bail: Uluvo lokungabinatyala ngumgaqo ongundoqo, kodwa amakhulu amawaka abantu ababanjwa kwiintolongo ezilindele ukuvavanywa ngenxa nje yokuba bengakwazi ukuhlawula ibheyile. Imeko ye yeUnited States----United States. Salerno[[[FLT] [1987]) ixhase ukuvalelwa komgaqo-siseko wabamangalelwa abangxinwa abayingozi, kodwa inkqubo yale mihla igwetyelwe njengendlela yocalulo olusekelwe kwimali oluthiye lwalo olubangela ubuhlwempu obubangela ukuba umvande phambi kokuziva ityala.
  • [[FLT: 0] Isohlwayo esingaqhelekanga: IsiHlanziso sesibhozo silawula ukusetyenziswa kwamandla neemeko zokuvalelwa. Iimeko ezifana Furman v. Georgia[ [772]) yasimisa okwethutyana isohlwayo sokufa ngenxa yesicelo saso esizenzekelayo, kunye Gregbv. Georgia [6] [7] Ivumela kwakhona phantsi kolawulo olungqongqo. Namhlanje, uHlamkelo olusibhozo lusembindini ukucacisa intolongo ngaphezu komgangatho ophezulu, ukungokwaneze ukhuseleko, ukungoneliseko lwempilo, nokusetyenziswa kokuvalelwa komntu exeshikweni.
  • Imeko yeFotrefeiture: Imeko ye Timbs v. Indiana (2011) yasebenzisa iSendmenting Mails Reconfs Clause kumazwe. Inkundla yagqiba kwelokuba urhulumente akanakuthatha iRondi yendoda i-R3,000 ukwenzela ulwaphulo-mthetho lweziyobisi, ifumana ukuba i-Arangenwa yinkqubo efunekayo kunye namalungelo empahla karhulumente.

Ukuphendula kwamapolisa nokuthembeka

Isithuthi esiphambili esisemthethweni sokubamba amagosa amapolisa kunye namaqumrhu karhulumente amele aphendule ngenxa yokwaphulwa kwamalungelo abantu liCandelo lama-42 e-U.S.C. ICandelo lowe-1998. Lo mthetho uvumela abantu ukuba bamangalelwe kwiphondo nakumagosa asekuhlaleni ukuba bahluthe amalungelo abo omGaqo-siseko. Noko ke, imfundiso engenakuze iphumelele ibangele umqobo obalulekileyo kokusesikweni.

Ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo lokhuseleko lwamagosa karhulumente luwakhusela kwityala ngaphandle kokuba aphule ngokuphandle "amalungelo omthetho osemthethweni okanye asemthethweni apho umntu onolwazelelelo ebeya kuba wazi khona. Lo mlinganiselo utolikwa ngokungqongqo ziinkundla kangangokuba usoloko uthintela amatyala ukuba angaze avavanywe, kwanaxa kukho impatho engalunganga. Abagxeki baphikisa ukuba [[FLT: 0] umsebenzi wangoku wokuzikhusela ekuthinteni okufanelekileyo [[FLT: 1] uphambukele kude lee nenjongo yawo yantlalo, ukhusela amagosa ekuphenduleleni nasekuthinteleni ukuphuhliswa komthetho we-mgaqo-siseko. Ingxoxo engokuba nokuphucula ukuthintelwa komthetho ofanelekileyo yenye yezikhalo eziphambili zomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho.

Iingxaki Zangoku

Namhlanje, ulwalamano phakathi kwamalungelo abantu nomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho luyaqhubeka luguquka ngokukhawuleza.

Ukuxinezeleka Okuninzi Njengengxaki Yamalungelo Abantu

I-United States inelona qondo liphezulu lokuvalelwa ehlabathini. Abantu abangaphezu kwe-1,9 lezigidi ezintolongweni nasezintolongweni, isikali sale nkqubo sinyusa inkxalabo enzulu ngamalungelo abantu. Impembelelo ayingobundilele: Abantu abantsundu bavalelwa phantse kahlanu kumlinganiselo wabamhlophe baseMerika. i-Latinos ivalelwa izihlandlo ezi-1,3.

Le nkqubo yenza umjikelo wobuhlwempu nokunganeliseki. Iinkolelo eziqhelekileyo zingakhokelela ekuvalweni okusisigxina kokuvota, kwizindlu zikawonke-wonke, kumalayisensi obugcisa, kunye nenkxaso yemali yabafundi. "Nangona imigaqo-nkqubo" yolwaphulo-mthetho, kuquka imithetho emithathu yemiqathango kunye nemiqathango ephantsi kwemiqathango, ukusekwa kwemeko ebhaqwa ngokubanzi njengomqhubi wentlalo olungalinganiyo. Brennan Center yeJaji enika uphando olunzulu ekuphuculeni ukunciphisa ukugcinwa kwemiqathango, ukuhla kokhuseleko loluntu ngexa kubuyisela amalungelo abantu.

Utshintsho Lomgaqo - siseko Weziyobisi Nelifa Lemfazwe Enxamnye Neziyobisi

Imfazwe yokubulala iziyobisi iye yaba yinjini yokuqala yokuvalelwa kwabantu abaninzi kwaye ibangela ukwahluka kobuhlanga. Nangona amanani okusetyenziswa kweziyobisi efana namaqela eentlanga, abantu abamnyama nabaMlambo, babanjwa, bagwetyelwe isigwebo sezono zeziyobisi ngexabiso eliphezulu kakhulu. Ikhulu:1 ukuhlukana phakathi kwemigwebo yecrack necocaine yaba ngumqondiso ocacileyo wokungekho sikweni.

ISinyathelo sokuqala sonyaka wama-2018 sasibalulekile, nangona sasingaphelelanga, singutshintsho oluthi lwanciphisa umlinganiselo onyanzelekileyo wetyala elithile leziyobisi kwaye lwabangela ukuba iSair Sentensing Act iphinde isebenze. Kumgangatho wesizwe, intshukumo yokususa umbasa okanye ukugunyazisa ngokusemthethweni iya ikhula, kodwa ikwaphakamisa imibuzo emitsha yamalungelo abantu. Izenzo zangaphambili ezisemthethweni ezikhoyo ngoku kufuneka zipheliswe ukunqanda iziphumo ezifanelekileyo zengxelo yezaphuli-mthetho ekuqhubekeni nokuqhubeka kwezi tyala.

Ukwahluka Kobuhlanga Kwinkqubo Yokusesikweni

Ucalucalulo lukhona kulo lonke iqondo lenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho, ukusuka kumsebenzi wamapolisa ukuya kugwetywa. Uphando lubonisa rhoqo ukuba abamangalelwa abamnyama nababhila-bhabhayo badla ngokuvalelwa phambi kwetyala, bafumane izigwebo ezinde, kwaye babekwe ityala elinzima kunabamangalelwa abamhlophe abamangalelwa ngezenzo ezifanayo. Iprojekthi ye-Sevenfication ilandela ezi zimkhethe zezizwe ezi. kunye nabaxhasi bemithetho echaza iingcambumbu zabo.

Ukucalucalula ngokupheleleyo kunendima ebalulekileyo. Imithetho-mthetho esetyenziswa ekuhlolweni kwengozi kunye nokuxelwa kwangaphambili kwamapolisa inokuqhubekisela phambili ukuchasa ngokwembali ukuba ayilwanga kwaye iqwalaselwe. Ukushukuma kogcino-lwazi olucacileyo nokuziphendulela ngemithetho-siseko kuyinto ekhulayo ekulweni ukhuseleko olulinganayo phantsi komthetho.

Utshintsho Nobulungisa Bangaphambili

Inkqubo yebheyile yale mihla iye yaba yindawo yokulalisa amalungelo abantu. Kwimimandla emininzi, abantu bavalelwa entolongweni ngaphambi kokuba bavavanywe ngenxa nje yokuba bengamahlwempu. Aba bohlwayi ababanjwanga, bahlawulisa amawaka ezigidi, kwaye banyanzelela abantu abamsulwa ukuba bavume ukuba banetyala lokukhusela ukukhululwa kwabo.

Utshintsho olukwiziko elifana neNew Jersey neNew York luye lwaqhubela kwizigqibo ezisekelwe kumngcipheko kunokuba lungangeni mali. Noko ke, utshintsho luzaliswe bubunzima. Ukusetyenziswa kwezixhobo zovavanyo lomngcipheko kugxekwe ngokungabi nakukhanyelwa kwaye okunokwenzeka ukuba kubekho ikhethe lobuhlanga. Abaxhasi baphikisa ngelithi ekuphela kwendlela yokuqinisekisa ukuba okusesikweni kumiselwe kwangaphambili kukuphelisa imali ngokupheleleyo nokufakela kwintlawulo nenkxaso esekelwe eluntwini.

Utshintsho Lwamapolisa Nokufuna Ukuphendula

Ukubulawa kukaGeorge Floyd, Breonna Taylor, kunye nabanye abaninzi bavuselela umbutho woqhankqalazo omkhulu kwimbali yaseMerika, efuna ukuphinda kuhlolwe amapolisa. Imfuneko yokuphendula ingaphaya koqeqesho lomphathi ngamnye ukuqulunqa iinguqu zenkqubo.

  • IMimiselo eVunyiweyo: Isebe lamaLungelo eSizwe lingaphengulula amasebe amapolisa ukwenzela "umzekelo okanye ukuqhelisa" ukwaphulwa komgaqo-siseko. ] DoD-okanye uphando olugunyazisiweyo [ lukhokelele ekuvumeni imimiselo ephelisa utshintsho olutsha emadolobheni njenge-Proguson, Baltimote, neMinneapolis. Ezi zivumelwano zomthetho zizixhobo ezinamandla zokufaka i-grobhastile, kodwa zifuna ukusetyenziswa komthetho nokusetyenziswa kwemithetho esebenzayo ukuze ziphumelele.
  • Body-Worn Cameras: Ngelixesha imfaneleko wokukhanya, iikhamera aziyopanca. Iimpikiswano ezijikeleze ukhupho lwenyawo, ugcino-lwazi, kwaye xa iikhamera zivulelwe ukuba zihlale zikhuphiswana. Ubugcisa mabudityaniswe nemigaqo eqinileyo ukuze buphumelele.
  • I-George Floyd Justice in Policistic Act: Lo mthetho karhulumente ubanzi, ogqithe kwindlu kodwa owenzelwe ukuvala imiqathango, ukuphelisa ukuthintelwa kokhuseleko olufanelekileyo, ukudala ubhaliso lwesizwe lwamapolisa olungekho mthethweni, kwaye utshintshe umthetho wetyala lolwaphulo-mthetho owenzelwe ukunyanzelisa imilinganiselo engqongqo yezopolitiko kulungelelaniso lwamapolisa. Ukungadluliswa kwalo kugxininisa umlinganiselo ophezulu wezopolitiko phakathi kwamagosa omthetho kunye namalungelo abantu.

Isiphelo

Ulungelelwano phakathi kwamalungelo abantu nomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho alumi; ngumda osoloko ukhuphisana ochaza uphawu lwedemokhrasi yaseMelika. Isazinge sembali sibonisa ukuba inkqubela inokwenzeka, kodwa kunzima ukudlula kwiingxaki ezisemthethweni, iingcangca ezi-activism, kunye nesenzo somthetho. Abaququzeleli be-Reconstan Amendment Amendments abanakuba bathelekelela ubunkimbi bemeko yale mihla ye-carceral, kodwa umbono wabo wokukhuselwa ngokulingana kunye nenkqubo efanelekileyo uhlala uyinkwenkwezi ekhokelayo.

Njengoko sihambela phambili, ucelomngeni kukuqinisekisa ukuba inkqubo yobulungisa yolwaphulo-mthetho iyalizalisekisa idinga layo lokhuseleko nokuziphendulela ngaphandle kokuba yinjini yengcinezelo. Oku kufuna imbopheleleko yokuphelisa ubuhlanga, imigaqo-nkqubo yokulungisa imigaqo-siseko, nokutyalwa kweemali ezihlalisanayo. Ukusukela inkqubo elungelelene ngokugqibeleleyo kuhlala kuhleli, kufuna ukuhlolwa okuqhubekayo, ukukhuthazwa komthetho-siseko, nokuhlonelwa ngokunzulu kwamalungelo abantu abumba isiseko soluntu esinobulungisa.