Imvelaphi Yemfundiso Yokuvumelana

Imfundiso yeNguqulo imele enye yezona ntlobo ziguqu-guqukayo zomthetho-siseko waseMelika, ngokusisiseko iguqula ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente worhulumente kunye namazwe. Esona siseko sayo, le mfundiso imisela ukuba ngawaphi amalungiselelo eBhili yamaLungelo asebenza kurhulumente ngoRhulumente nge-The ICT Procesment Claussement of the Idement. Phambi kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini, iNkundla ePhakamileyo isoloko ikholelwa ukuba iBhili yamaLungelo libeke urhulumente karhulumente wesizwe kuphela, ishiya amatyala akhululekileyo ukuchaza inkululeko yawo. Ityala elincinane le-"FLT:0] lisebenza ngomthetho omthetho ozinzileyo. [FLT.Bermoremorence v v. [1833]) ivulile le mbono ecuthe , ilawula ukuba ukuthatha kwe-Geneargemstiki okulawula azimeleyo. Kwinkulungwane yokuqala yenkulungwane se-10)

Ukucaciswa koMphetho weMpatho weshumi elinesine we-1868, kunye noMalungelo ayo okanye ama-Immunities Claus, i-Act Procession Claus, kunye ne-List Livince Claus, kwavula indlela entsha yomgaqo-siseko. Noko ke, ukucaciswa kwasekuqaleni kweNkundla ePhakamileyo kweSineth Amendment iNdluwa yeNdlumo yeSagidi [[[FLT]]] [1873] ngokunempumelelo [1873]) yawawakhupha ngokunempumelelo amalungelo okanye i-Immunion Classe, isithi inqandanisa imigaqo yayo encinane yamalungelo orhulumente ekhoyo, isithi iqale ukuqwalasela iNkusungulwa kweNkundla yeNkundla ye-1970 yeNt.

Indima Yeembono Ezingavumelaniyo Ekuchaseni Le mfundiso

Nangona iimbono ezininzi zimele zisebenzise amandla omthetho, ngokufuthi ziimbono eziphikisanayo ezityala imbewu yenguqulelo yexesha elizayo esemthethweni. Kumongo weNguqulo yeNqaba, ukungavumelani kwasebenza njengemiqobo apho abagwebi bachaza ezinye iimbono zolawulo, inkqubo efunekayo, kunye nomlinganiselo wamalungelo omntu ngamnye. Ezi mbono azizange zivume nje ukuphikisana; zanikela uhlalutyo olungqongqo olungomthetho lokuba kamva izinto ezinkulu ziyakumkeleka, ngamanye amaxesha amashumi eminyaka kamva. Ngoko indaleko yokuquluvo lwayo ayiyo nje ibali lokuchaza ezinye iimbono zoburhulumente, inkqubo ekufuneka zenziwe yinkundla kodwa ikwanombandela wokuchasa inkundla ekwayamele yenze.

Ukungavunyelwa ekuququzeleleni amatyala kusoloko kucel ’ umngeni “ukuququzelela okukhoyo”, okusebenzisa kuphela ezo Bill of Rights zikhuselayo ezithathwa“zingoonozala benkqubo yenkululeko eyayalelweyo.” Abagxeki baphikisa ukuba lo mgangatho wawuzikhethele kwaye wawushiya uqikelelo oluninzi kubagwebi. Endaweni yoko, aba baphikisi babexhasa“amanani apheleleyo okuquququzelelwa kunye” okanye“ ulwandiso olupheleleyo kunye” imbono yokuba uHlulo lweMimiselo lweshumi elinesine lweMiqathango lweSimiselo lweNkqululo lwenzelo olusebenza kumazwe okanye kwanandiswa amalungelo awo angundoqo angachazwanga kwizigidi ezisibhozo zokuqala ezisibhozo. Ngelixa uqululo lungaphinde luthethelele ekunyukisweni kwamalungelo alo phakathi kwenkulungwane yeshumi elineshumi elinesithoba-19.

Iimbono Eziphambili Ezingavumelaniyo Nempembelelo Yazo

Impixano yeJaji Harlan Palko v. Connecticut[[FL:1] (1937)

Isigqibo seNkundla uJohn Marshall Harlan (umdala) sanikela umbono owahlukileyo ngokuphawulekayo. Palko v. Connecticut luphawu olubalulekileyo kulwakhiwo olukhethayo, kodwa uluvo oluphikisayo lukaJaji John Marshall Harlan (umdala) wanikela umbono owahlukileyo kakhulu. [ Palko, uninzi, luthetha ngeJasti Cardbozozozo, lukholelwa ukuba ukhuseleko lweSiphengululo sesihlanu nxamnye nengozi ephindwe kabini alusebenzi kumanqaku kuba “alungekho kwimbono yenkululeko ekhululekileyo." Ifomu yodidi lomthetho ephezulu yeqela lokukhupha: kuphela amalungelo“ aphezulu kwiisithethe esinyuliweyo kunye nesazela sethu esinesazela esingundoqo njengamazwi angundoqo.

[[3] IJaji Harlan yaphikisa, iphikisa ngelithi ingcamango efunekayo phantsi koMphetho-mva weshumi elinesine ifanele iqondwe ngokuphangaleleyo. Waphikisa ngelithi ukhuseleko lweBhili yamaLungelo “embangweni” luquka uludwe oluninzi lwenkululeko kunokuba ivunywa ngabaninzi. Ngokungqalileyo, iHarlan yaqinisekisa ukuba ukunqanda ukubekwa kwengozi ephindwe kabini kwakukukulungela ukuba kukhuselwe ukukhusela imo kanye nokuchaswa kwesizwe. [FFF:] ukhuseleko lwakhe aluzange lwamkele intelo olupheleleyo lwendlela ebekwe ngayo ingqwalaselo enokuthi zonke iziphinziwayo zemali zisetyenziswe ngokuzenzekelayo kumaphondo, kodwa wakwalandula ukuvavanywa kwenkomfa. [[5] [12], kunye neNkaT] [12] [12] [12]

Impixano yeJaji Black Adamson v. California (1947)]

Mhlawumbi eyona mpikiswano inamandla nengokwembali ebalulekileyo ephambili kwingxoxo ebandakanyayo ye-Hugo Black kwi- Adamson v. California. Ngelo xesha, uninzi, lukhokelwa nguJaji Felix Frankfurter, waxhasa umthetho waseKhalifoniya owawuvumela umtshutshisi ukuba agqabaze ngokusilela kommangalelwa ekumangalweni. Abamnyama baphikisa ukuba lo mkhwa walwa ilungelo leFindth Conmplitement ngokuchasene nolwenzeko loMphetho-mthetho we-145. Ukungavumelani komgwebi yayingeyo nje into ethetha nje ngokuchasana ngezibakala.

IJaji Black yaphikisa ngelithi abalayishi boMphetho-mda weshumi elinesine bezimisele ukusebenzisa iBhili yamaLungelo kumaphondo. Waxhasa impikiswano yakhe ngohlalutyo olunzulu lwembali yokulungisa imbali, kuquka iingxelo zomxhasi wayo oyintloko, u-Darhente John Bingham, namanye amalungu eBhunga. Abamnyama baphikisa ukuba amalungelo okanye ii-Immunites Claus, ukuba zichazwe kakuhle, zinokuba ziphumeze zonke iziphumo ezipheleleyo zembali zembali zokulungisa imbali, kodwa ukuba iNkundla i-Slaastter Cases- Houses [[FLT:]]

Umahluko omnyama [[FLT: 0] uAdamson akazange ayisele uninzi ngo 1947, kodwa waba nempembelelo enkulu ekuququzelweni kwe-jurisprudence elandelayo. IJaji Black yaqhubeka ixhasa ukwenziwa kwayo yonke into emva kwemeko, kwaye iimbono zayo zafumana ulwakhiwo lweNkundla zatshintsha. Inkundla yeWarren, eyayamamelayo ukusuka kuma1950 ukuya kuma-1960, yamkela imbono ebanzi yamalungelo adityanisiweyo, isondela kumbono wobumnyama. [[FLT:] [FFL:]] .[5] [FFLT].[4] [5] [4] [4] [eye .FLT] [FLT] [4] .[4]

Impelesi yeJaji Brandeis Whitney v. California (127])

Nangona [[FLT: 0] [imeko ye-WTY] ijongene netyala eliphambili lokuthetha ngenkululeko phantsi koMphetho wokuqala (owawudityaniswe kwi Gitrow v. New York] [1925])."Umthetho we-Justice Louis Brandeia (osoloko echatshazelwa njengenkululeko yokuthetha (onke amaxesha amaninzi uninzi lwala umlinganiselo ongqongqo) luxwebhu lwesiseko kwimbali equququzelekayo. [uBrandeiter] wabhala ngokuchaseneyo ukuphikisa ukuba uMxokelelwano weMqathango ka-1459 uClaus ukhuseleke kakhulu kunamalungelo aphezulu eeproccureal; ubandakanya inkululeko encinci efana neyamkelekileyo kwi-demokhrasitiki. Uthelelanethiwayo uluthi oluye lwazinzileyo oluye lwazinzileyo luye lwazinzile abantu bakholelwa kwisigqibo sokuphumelela kwabo." uR."

Uluvo lukaBradei lwaphembelela ulwamkelo lwamva lweNkundla lokufumana “ingozi ecacileyo nekhoyo” yokuvavanya imiqathango yokuthetha, umjelo owaphakamisa ukhuseleko lwentetho yezobupolitika ngaphezulu kwezilangazelelo zikarhulumente. Ngoxa uBradeis engazange ameme ngokucacileyo ukuba aququzelele uqulunqelo, ukuqiqa kwakhe kwaxhasa ukufundwa okubanzi koMgqomo weshumi elinesine WesiHlaziselo oza kusetyenziswa kamva ukudibanisa izivakalisi zoMbeko lokuqala ezinamandla apheleleyo ngokuchasene noorhulumente. Uluvo lwakhe [[FLT:]Whitneyneyney luhlala luselulo lolwazi olupheleleyo lwentandabulumko olukhoyo.

ISivumo soMgwebi Douglas' sokuVuma [[FL:0] Hurtado v. California (1884)

Nangona kuthethwe ngaphambili kuneempikiswano, ukungavumelani kweJaji uStephen Igale [FLT: 0] neK. ISilifornia isoloko ichazwa njengesiqalo sokuqala sokuqalisa impikiswano. iHurtado[, iNkundla yathi iMpatho-Mbethi weSifungo weSihlanu ayisebenzanga kumazwe. Inkundla yeJaji, edityaniswe nguJaji Joseph Bradley, edityaniswe, ephikisayo, isithi iMvumelwano ye 1448 yeMsebenzi yoMsebenzi wolawulo kaClawuka umele ufake zonke izikhuseli zokhuseleko ezinxulumene nokuphatha okusesikweni. Ukungavumelani kwelizwe akuyiqhubeli imini, kodwa igadiwe imbewu yembewu. Kamva, i-Harlan, kunye ne-File, ichaza intelelo ecacileyo kuMandla ye-Gileentu yeNgwebo echaza i-Triyo.

Indaleko Ngophawu Oluphambili

Ukwahlukana Palko, Adamson, kunye Whitney[ ayizange iwutshintshe ngoko nangoko umthetho, kodwa yadala iqulathe isiseko esisemthethweni esithi iinkundla zamva zasetyenziswa. Inkqubo yokuququzelela ngokukhawuleza emva ko1920, ngeNkusebenza kancinci ilungiselelo elinye leBhili lamaLungelo emva kwelinye icala.

  • Gitlow v. New York (25): INkundla yaquka igalelo loMthetho wokuqala okhululekileyo wokuthetha, elibamba elithi lichaza ukuba ayinayo inkululeko yebridge yomlomo `Nakanjani uluvo lungavumelekanga ukudibanisa uHlulo loQala.
  • [FLT] Near v. Minnesota[[FL:2] (1931): INkundla yaquka inkululeko yerejista yokucofa, ibetha umthetho wombuso ovumeleyo ngaphambi kokuba uvinjwe.
  • [FLT] Cantwell v. Connecticut[[FL:2] (1940): INkundla yaquka ukusebenzisa ngokukhululekileyo irejista yonqulo.
  • [FLT]Everson v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1947): INkundla yaquka umiselo lwengxelo, isebenzisa ukwahlulwa kwecawa norhulumente kumazwe.
  • [FLT]] Mapp v. Ohio (1961): INkundla yaquka umthetho wesi-4, ifuna iinkundla zelizwe ukuba zingabufaki ubungqina obufunyenwe ngokuphanda okungekho mthethweni.
  • [FLT]Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): INkundla yaquka uHlomelo lweSithandathu lokuLandlisa ilungelo lokucebisa kwiimeko zetyala.
  • [[NTLT:0] Malloy v. Hogan [1964] INkundla yaquka ilungelo lokuHlaziya lesihlanu nxamnye nolwahlulo-luhlanga-lwe-----------awuguquli ngqo lokuqiqa Palko[ kunye Adamson.
  • [FLT][FUN] v. Louisiana (1968): INkundla yaquka uHlaziyo lweSithandathu lungelo lokuvavanywa ngabagwebi kumatyala anzulu olwaphulo-mthetho, ngokucacileyo yamkela “uvavanyo lwemeko-siseko” olukhuthazwe kukungavumelani kweJaji Harlan .Palko
  • [[UMGAQO:0] Benton v. Maryland [1969] INkundla yaquka uHlaliso lwesihlanu lweMpatho-mbombo oluphindwe kabini, olungaphezulu kolu- Palko yaqinisekisa umbono wesichasi seHarlan.

La matyala abonisa umlinganiselo ocacileyo: ukwahluka okukhuthaza imbono ebanzi yokuququzelela ekugqibeleni yaba yindawo yoninzi. Inkundla yasuswa kwindlela ekhetheke kakhulu eyashiya iBhili yamaLungelo isithi ayibopheleleki kwisicelo esikufuphi naso sonke. Namhlanje, phantse yonke imiqathango yeBhili yamaLungelo ekhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye iye yafakwa, ngokuphandle okumbalwa (ngokufana nokuqulunqwa kwe-kota kwamajoni kunye ne-Gandla lesihlanu lemithetho ephezulu yetyala, nto iNkulwa kweNkundla yalile ukudibanisa [FLT]]]

Imibuzo Yale Mihla Neengxoxo Eziqhubekayo

Imfundiso edityanisiweyo ihlala ingummandla ophambili womthetho-siseko, nangona isiseko somgaqo-siseko sisongiwe kakhulu ngoku. Noko ke, iimbono eziphikisanayo ziyaqhubeka zidlala indima ekulungiseni imida yayo. Umzekelo, McDonald v. IsiXeko seChicago[ [2010], iNkundla yafaka iSiphengululo sesibini sokuHlazisa kwicala lasekunene ukugcina nokuthwala iingalo [FLT:] [FLT] [FT] [3] iziphumo zembali yoluvo oluninzi. Kodwa umbango oluninzi lwangaphambili luthi kufutshane luthi `[FT] [FT] [5] kunye ne-FT].[5]

Ingxoxo emalunga nobubanzi bomHlahlo ikwaquka ulwalelo olugqithisileyo lweSinyuso sesibhozo, kodwa kusekho imibuzo enzulu malunga noMphetho-mda weNkqutyana eGqinisiweyo noMvukelo Onenkohlakalo noNgqongqo. uTimbs v. Indiana (2011]), iNkundla ifake intlawulo olugqithisileyo, kodwa ishiyeke ngokungathi ngaba uMphetho weGqikelelo weshumi elinesibhozo uClauscesme okanye amalungelo oMveli ngumatshini owe-Imsclass okanye i-Im Classione isithu esisithu sesithu senqwelo elungileyo yokuhlanganisa. Ezinye izazi nabagwebi, kuquka uClavis Claus, ukubizwa komnye umbono owenziwa kwakhona. [Foctson] [12]

Ubuncwane bangaphandle bokufunda okubhekele phaya buquka iCornell Information Imental Institute yoshwankathelo lwe-Incorporation Doctrine, i-[FLT]Oyez project yeprojekthi ye [[ i-Timbs v. i-Indianayi[[[FLT]][FLT]], kunye neSikhokelo somGaqo-siseko wesizwe kwiSinyuso seNgqo [[FLTLT:7]. Ezi mithombo zinika umba ongeziweyo kwindaleko yendaleko kunye nentsingiselo yexesha lokusebenza.

Isiphelo

Imfundiso yeNqanawa isuka kwiBhili yamaLungelo e-Incoroporation Doctrine enciphileyo, urhulumente ngqa phambili ekuqondeni iBhili yamaLungelo eqinileyo ekhusela inkululeko esisiseko nxamnye nolawulo. Olu tshintsho lunetyala elinzulu lokuchasa iimbono ezisuka kubagwebi abafana noHarlan, Black, Blangeis, kunye neField. Ezi mpikiswano azizange zivele nje zichase iziphumo zemeko ezithile; zanikela iingcamango ezingqinelanayo ezithi ngokuthe ngcembe zizuze ukwamkelwa ngokwasemthethweni nakumaxabiso esizwe aqalayo. Iimbono ezisebenza njengemiqathango yeNkusebenza kweBhili yamaLungelo. Namhlanje, eziqululisa imfundiso zimi ngelingo zamazwi aphikisanayo kumthetho-Melikan-Melika.[8]