INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States (SCOTUS) ime njengomxhasi wokugqibela weempikiswano zomthetho kuhlanga olwakhelwe kumthetho. Umsebenzi wayo oyintloko kukuchaza umGaqo-siseko kunye nemimiselo karhulumente, umsebenzi obandakanya ngokungaphephekiyo ukugqiba enoba imithetho edluliswa yiBhunga kunye nezindlu zowiso-mthetho ziyasebenza okanye kufuneka ibethelwe phantsi. Lo mandla ombini wokuxhasa okanye ukuguqula imithetho asiyomvume yokumisa izithuba kwibhedrin, kodwa endaweni yoko usuka kumgaqo wesiseko wokuhlola isigwebo. Ukuqonda imilinganiselo, imilinganiselo, kunye neemfundiso ezisetyenziswa yiNkundla yokulawula iimbopheleleko zayo ezinzima kuyimfuneko ekuqondeni ulawulo lwaseMerika.

Amandla eNkundla ahluke ngokwemvelo. Lilungiselelo eliphikisanayo nomthetho okhoyo kwiriphabliki yedemokhrasi; abagwebi abangagwetywanga banokuphelisa ukuthanda kwabantu njengoko kuboniswa ngabameli babo abanyuliweyo. Kodwa, eli gunya linyanzelwa ngokucokisekileyo ngeqhinga, inkqubo, kunye nombhalo woMgaqo-siseko ngokwawo. Xa iNkundla ixhasa umthetho, iqinisekisa umgwebo wemithetho-siseko. Xa iguqula umthetho, ivakalisa ngokunempumelelo ukuba umgwebo awuhambelani nesiseko sohlanga. Ezi zigqibo azizenziwa ngebala, kodwa zimveliso yenkqubo entsonkothileyo, kodwa ziyilelwe ukuqinisekisa uzinzo ngexa ivumela ukuba indaleko yendaleko esemthethweni.

Isiseko Sempinda Yezogwebo

Ngaphambi kokuba uhlole indlela imithetho exhaswa okanye etshintshwa ngayo, kubalulekile ukuqonda umthombo wegunya leNkundla ukuba ibandakanye kwingxubusho enjalo. Eli gunya alichazwanga ngokucacileyo kumbhalo womGaqo-siseko. Endaweni yoko, lamiselwa yiNkundla ngokwayo kwesinye sezigqibo eziphambili ezingokwasemthethweni kwimbali yaseMerika.

Marbury v. Madison kunye namandla okuchaza oko kuthethwa nguMthetho

Imeko ephawulekayo (1803 ye Marbury v. Madison lisiseko somthetho womgaqo-siseko waseMelika. Impikiswano yavela kwisiphithiphithi sezobupolitika se "ABagwebi basebusuku" ekumiselweni koJohn Adams umongameli. UWilliam Marbury, unyulwe ophazamisekileyo, unobhala weSizwe uJames Madison kumsebenzi wakhe. Kuluvo oluninzi, uMahluleli uJohn Mar Marshall wenza intshukumo ecacileyo. Wagqiba kwelokuba ngexesha uMarbury wayenolwazi oluphezulu kumsebenzi wakhe, iNkundla ayinako ukuyalela ukunikezelwa kwayo ngenxa yokuba umthetho unike iNkundla unikezelo oluthe ngqo lwe-13 lwe-Judiary Active (uction 13 ye-Udiary) ayizange ihambe.

UMarshall wavakalisa ngokudumileyo, " ngumsebenzi ogxininisiweyo wephondo kunye nomsebenzi wesebe lejaji ukuchaza oko kungumthetho. Le ngxelo ilula kodwa enamandla yamisa imfundiso yokuhlola okugweba — igunya leNkundla ePhakamileyo lokuwisa imithetho echasene noMgaqo-siseko. Ngokubetha ngolu hlobo olunye, Marshall wabeka icandelo lejaji njengesebe likarhulumente elilinganayo, elikwaziyo ukuvavanya amandla eBhunga kunye noMongameli.

Ulwimi

Mhlawumbi eyona nto ibalulekileyo enyanzelisayo kumandla eNkundla yimfundiso ye stares decisis, igama lesiLatin elithetha "ukuma ngokwezinto ezigqitywe. Lo mgaqo uthetha ukuba iinkundla zimele zilandele imizekelo emiselwe kwiimeko zangaphambili. iSterthe decisis inikeza ukungaguquguquki, ukuxelwa kwangaphambili, kunye nokuzinza kumthetho. Iqinisekisa ukuba amatyala afanayo agqitywe ngeendlela ezifanayo, ithintela umthetho ekuguqukeni kwazo zonke iinguquko kwiNkundla.

INkundla ayiwuthathi umzekelo njengomthetho ongenakupheliswa, kodwa iwuphatha ngentlonelo enkulu. Njengoko iNkundla yaphawula kwi uParents . Casey (1992, ukuphambuka okusuka kwimodeli kufuna "ukuthethelela okukhethekileyo".' Iziqalelo ezifana nomgangatho wengqiqo yokuqala, ukusebenza komthetho, kunye notshintsho kwizibakala okanye ukuqonda kunokuzithethelela kwisigqibo sangaphambili. Amandla okuphakamisa umthetho asoloko edityaniswa nokuhlonela imizekelo ekhoyo, ngexa amandla okutshintsha umthetho kufuneka iNkuvavanye iindleko zotshintsho olude lokuguqulela ulwazi.

Ukuchazwa kwemithetho yesiseko

INkundla isebenzisa amandla ayo okuhlola okugweba kwimo ezimbini ezahlukeneyo. Eyokuqala yinkcazelo ye-constitunical, apho iNkundla igqibayo ukuba umthetho uyangqubana nombhalo okanye imigaqo yomGaqo-siseko. Xa iNkundla ifumana ulwaphulo, umthetho unikezelwe uphumile. Eyesibini yindlela yokutolika yomfundisi [[, apho iNkuyo iNkundla ifuna ukucacisa intsingiselo yommiselo odluliselwe yiBhunga. Ekubeni iNkuqulundlo inamandla okugcina umthetho, inkundla isoloko ithobela iinjongo zayo, inikezelwe ngumthetho-mGwal.

Isixhobo esingundoqo kutoliko lwezomthetho yimfundiso ye- ye-Chebron. Le mfundiso ithi ukuba ummiselo uyaphikisana, inkundla kufuneka ibambe ityala kutoliko olusengqiqweni lwequmrhu lomthetho. Oku kuyabuqonda ubuchule bolawulo lwezolawulo kwaye kuvuma ukuba ukwenziwa komthetho kudla ngokuzalisa kwimida esekhohlo yiBhunga. Ukuqonda oku kubalulekile, njengokuba iNkundla inokwenza imimiselo (enokuthi kamva iBhunga ifune ukusetyenziswa) kumgaqo ophezulu (ekufuneka kuchazwe ngumthetho omkhulu).

Indlela Inkundla Ephakamileyo Eyixhasa Ngayo Imithetho: Imilinganiselo Yokuzihlaziya

Xa umthetho ucelw ’ umngeni, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ayibuzi ukuba yinkqubo elungileyo okanye ngumthetho wobulumko kusini na. Endaweni yoko, ibuza ukuba urhulumente unobulungisa obufanelekileyo bomthetho phantsi komGaqo-siseko. Ukuphendula lo mbuzo, iNkundla iveze inkqubo elandelelanayo yokuhlola, ukususela ekuthabatheni kumlinganiselo ophezulu ukuya kutsho ekungxengxelweni ngokungqongqo.

Impinda Esisiseko

Owona mgangatho usezantsi noqhelekileyo wohlolo uhlolo olunesiseko sokwahlula. Ngaphantsi kwalo mgangatho, umthetho ubalwa njengomGaqo-siseko. Lo mthwalo uphela ubekwe kumcebisi ukuqinisekisa ukuba umthetho awunanto ifanelekileyo yokudibana nomdla karhulumente osemthethweni. Lo mlinganiselo ufanele ukuthotyelwa phambili kakhulu kwiindlu zowiso-mthetho, ubonakalisa inkolelo yokuba izigqibo zenkqubo yezoqoqosho nezentlalo zishiyelwe kwinkqubo yedemokhrasi.

Umzekelo, kwi uWilliamson v. Lee Optical Co. (19555), iNkundla yaxhasa umthetho weOklahoma owabangela ukuba ungabi semthethweni ukuba iingcali ze-operacture ifake ilensi endala kwimigangatho emitsha ngaphandle komyalelo ovela kwi-optometrist okanye ugqirha wezifo zamehlo. Umthetho wabonakala ukhusela umsebenzi omnye kwiindleko zomnye, kodwa iNkundla yafumanisa ukuba indlu yowiso ingenza isigqibo esisengqiqweni sokulawula le ndlela. Imithetho ephantse iphinda iqine phantsi kwesiseko esifanelekileyo, isenza indlela yokuqala esetyenziswa yiNkugweba evumela izigwebo.

Uvavanyo oluphakathi

The second tier is intermediate scrutiny, a standard applied in cases involving classifications based on gender or legitimacy. To survive intermediate scrutiny, the government must show that the law serves an important government objective and is substantially related to achieving that objective. Unlike rational basis, the burden of proof is on the government, not the challenger.

Umgangatho wangoku waqiniswa kwi Craig v. Boren (19976), apho iNkundla yawisa umthetho weOklahoma owavumela amabhinqa ukuba athenge i-3,2% yebhiya eneminyaka eli-18 ubudala kodwa kwafuneka ukuba amadoda abe ngu-21. INkundla ifumanise ukuba "ii-"archac kunye ne-operandromedias" malunga nemikhwa yokusela yamadoda namabhinqa ayikhange inikezele "i -STANGX" uqinisekiso olwaneleyo. Intenemediaste isebenza njengomhlaba ophakathi, inikela ukhuseleko olungaphezulu kunoluqilima oluncinci kunomgangatho ophezulu.

Uphando Olungqongqo

Owona mgangatho uphezulu nowona unzima ngu [ uhlolo lwecandelo. Lo mgangatho usetyenziswa xa umthetho ucalucalula ngokusekelwe ku uqulu-luluvo[ [okanye umgangatho ophezulu] (njengohlanga, imvelaphi yesizwe, okanye unqulo) okanye ukuchasa [[FLT:] umgaqo-siseko wesiseko wesiseko (ofana nelungelo lokuvota, okanye amalungelo aqinisekiswe kukuhlaziywa kokuHlutya, okanye ukusetyenziswa kolawulo lokuqala). Phantsi kovavanyo olungqongqo, umthetho ucingelwa ukuba awunyanzeli, kwaye urhulumente uthwala umthwalo onzima wokubonakalisa oko kungumthetho [FTL:] [FT] [5] [5] [5]

[[NTLT:0] Okokeratsu v. United States (1944), iNkundla edume kakubi yasebenzisa uhlalutyo olungqongqo kodwa yaqhubeka ixhasa ukudibana kwamaJaphani aseMerika ngexesha lemfazwe yehlabathi II, ifumana ukuba ukhuseleko lwesizwe yayingumdla onyanzelisayo. Noko ke, kwiimeko ezininzi zangoku, uhlolo olungqongqo "lukwinkcazelo, kodwa oluyingozi ngokwenene. Umzekelo, Griteb. Bollinger[FLT] [2003] [2003] [iiiiinkundla ixhasa iNkusebenza kweSikolo soMthetho, ukufumana ukuba ukuphumelela komzimba wabafundi abahlukeneyo kwakubangela umdla kwaye inkqubo edityaniweyo. Le nkqubo inika le migaqo yemithetho yeNkusebenza okanye ingumthetho.

Indlela Inkundla Ephakamileyo Eyimisela okanye Iyichasa Ngayo Imithetho

Xa iNkundla ifumanisa ukuba umthetho waphula umGaqo-siseko, ungayitshintsha ngokunempumelelo indlela esemthethweni. Olu tshintsho lungamxinwa, lubethelele ukusetyenziswa okukhethekileyo komthetho, okanye ububanzi, lungawuthobeli ngokupheleleyo umthetho, lubhukuqa amashumi eminyaka ekwasele kuqalwe ngawo.

Ukugqithisa imbonakalo kunye nophawu

Eyona ndlela ibalaseleyo yokutshintsha umthetho kukugqithisa okusemthethweni kwesigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo. Esi sisiganeko esinqabileyo, esigcinelwe iimeko apho isigqibo sangaphambili singqineke singasebenzi, sithotyiwe zizigqibo zamva, okanye siphosakele. Owona mzekelo ubalaseleyo kwimbali yaseMelika ngu Brown v. [1954] [iimeko ekhethekileyo], ebekwe phantsi Presev.[FLT][FLT] [12] [12] [12][5] [186]] [186]].[FLT] Engalawulekiyo i-[FLT] [FLT]] [5] ixhase "edient" imfundiso elinganayobuhlanga, ethethelela i-ihlanga. [FLT] [FT]] [FG:6]

Kwimbali yakutshanje, iNkundla yasebenzisa eli gunya ku . Hodges (2015, eyaguqula inkcazelo yomtshato ukuquka izibini ezidibeneyo, ukugqithisa imithetho yesizwe kunye nemizekelo yesizwe. Ngokunjalo, Dobs v. Jackson's Health Organization [2022]) kulawulo [[FLT] [[FLT:]] [20222] [202] [202]] kulawulo olugqithisileyo [[[FLT] v. [iiiiindlela egqithisileyo].[[FLT:] [5]] [7]) kunye [iiiiiiindlela] i-Palselse. v[FLT] [FLT] [5], , ibuyisela amandla okulawula ukuqhomfa.

Iingxaki Zobuso Njengeendlela Ezilucelomngeni

Inkundla ikwatshintsha imithetho ngohlobo locelomngeni eluqwalaselayo. Kucelomngeni olunamandla , umchasi uphikisa ngelithi umthetho awumiselwanga kuzo zonke iinkqubo zayo. Ukuba iNkundla iyavuma, umthetho ubethelelwa phantsi ngokupheleleyo kwaye awunakunyanzeliswa nakweyiphi na imeko. Le sixhobo esinamandla, kwaye iNkundla isoloko iwugcinela imithetho engacacanga okanye ebandayo intetho ekhuselweyo.

Ngokwahlukileyo, ucelomngeni olucetyiswayo [[Nkundla: 0] oluphakanyisweyo luphikisa ukuba umthetho awunyanzeliswanga ngqo njengoko usebenza kwiimeko ezithile zomchasi-mthetho, nokuba ingaba lungumGaqo-siseko kwezinye iinkqubo. Ukuba iNkundla iyavuma, ayiwubetheleli wonke umthetho. Endaweni yoko, iyalela urhulumente ukuba angawunyanzeli umthetho ochasene nomthetho ochasayo nabanye ngokufanayo. Oku kuvumela umthetho ukuba uhlale kwiincwadi, uchaphazela abo banezenzo ezithi zingena ngokulinganayo kumandla karhulumente asemthethweni. Umahluko phakathi kwezi ntlobo zimbibini zemingeni enzima ungundoqo ekuqondeni indlela iNkungenelela ngayo iNkundla elungileyo.

Imfundiso Yokungagungqi

Xa iNkundla ifumana inxalenye yomthetho ongekho mgaqweni, kufuneka igqibe ngokufuthi oko kwenzekayo komnye umthetho. Imfundiso ye inika isakhiwo. INkundla ibuza ukuba iBhunga ibiya kuba idlulise intsalela yomthetho ngaphandle komthetho ongekho mgaqo-siseko. Ukuba impendulo nguewe, ilungiselelo elingamiselwanga liphelile, kwaye wonke umthetho uyaqhubeka usebenza.

[[NTL:0] NFIB v. Sebelius (202), iNkundla yaxhasa umthetho womntu ngamnye we-Affordible Care Act phantsi kwamandla eBhunga arhafisayo, kodwa yagqiba kwelokuba isohlwayo sokungabhaptizi singesokunyanzeliswa phantsi korhwebo lukaCelaus. Okubaluleke ngakumbi, iNkundla yayalela ukuba ulwandiso lweMedicaid lwalungalawulwa ngokomthetho. Noko ke, iNkubonakalisa ukuba eli lungiselelo lalingenako ukurhoxa, ithetha ukuba elinye iA linokusinda ngaphandle kwalo. Ukuvumela iNkusebenza kweNkusebenza kweNkuvo kususe inxalenye ye-octiventine yendlela yomthetho ngaphandle kokwenza umgaqo womthetho.

Inkqubo Yokwenza Isigqibo Kwezi mini

Uhambo lomthetho ukusuka kummiselo wengqungquthela ukuya kumzekelo onyanzelisa eli lizwe liphela yinkqubo entsonkothileyo ebandakanya abadlali abaninzi abangaphaya kwethoba lomthetho. Ukuqonda le nkqubo kukhanyisa indlela iNkundla elilawula ngayo igunya layo elikhulu.

Ukusuka Kwisicelo Ukuya Kwimpikiswano Evakalayo

Uninzi lwamatyala afikelela kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo lwenza njalo ngesicelo se-' i-certiori. INkundla ifumana malunga ne7000 ukuya ku 8000 izicelo zesicelo ngasinye, kodwa inika kuphela uhlolo olupheleleyo kumatyala amalunga nama-70 ukuya kuma-80. Le nkqubo yokukhetha ilawulwa yi-"Rule of Four," ithetha ukuba ubuncinane abagwebi abane kufuneka bavote ukuva ityala.

Amalungisa axhomekeke kakhulu kuomabhalane bawo bezomthetho ukuze bahlole izibongozo, kwaye baxubusha ezona zithembisayo kwingqungquthela yangasese. Iityala ezibandakanya ukwahlulwa kwesiphaluka (apho iinkundla ezimbini zezicelo zikarhulumente zifikelele izigqibo ezahlukeneyo kwimbambano enye engokwasemthethweni), okanye imbambano ebalulekileyo wesizwe, zidla ngokunikwa ithuba elibalulekileyo lokunikwa isibeleko. Xa zivunyiwe, amaqela athe afumana iingxelo ezipheleleyo ezifanelekileyo, kwaye ucwangciso lweNkundlalelo ngalunye lunemizuzu engama-30 yokunikela ityala lalo, kodwa ityala lidla ngokuphazamisanabalelwa ngemibuzo ecacileyo. Impikiswano engooralal ayilo nje ithuba elibalulekileyo lokuvavanyazisa imiqathango yeengcamango ezingomthetho ezinikezelwayo.

Indima YeAmicus Curiae Efutshane

Phambi kokuba abagwebi bafikelele isigqibo, bagcwaliswa ngenkcazelo evela ku mamicucue okanye "abahlobo benkundla. Ezi zizinto zibekwa ngamaqela esithathu anemdla onamandla kwiziphumo zetyala kodwa angengawo amaqela athe ngqo kwityala. Amaqela ajongene netyala, oorhulumente, oonjingalwazi bezomthetho, iimbutho zorhwebo, kwaneSebe leJaji (ngeSolitheral General) basebenzisa iAmius ukunikeza iNkundla yeNkundla yokuNkundla ngeembono ezongezelelekileyo, umo lwembali, kwaye iziphumo zelifa lenyani zesigqibo.

ISolicitor General yi-amicu enempembelelo ngokukhethekileyo, esoloko ibizwa ngokuba yi "Seastity Justice". I-ofisi ye-SG' imela urhulumente wesizwe phambi kweNkundla kunye neefayile ezimfutshane kwiimeko apho urhulumente enemdla onamandla. INkundla isoloko imema i-SG ukuba ibhale kancinane kwanaxa urhulumente worhulumente engeyolungu. Ezi zishwankathela zinceda abagwebi baqonde impembelelo yemithetho yabo kulawulo lorhulumente kunye nolawulo lohlanga.

Ingqungquthela, Ukuthetha Neengcamango

Emva kweempikiswano ezidluliselwa ngomlomo, abagwebi badibana kwingqungquthela yabucala ukuze baxubushe ngetyala baze bavote. IJaji eyiNtloko iyongamela ize ithethe kuqala, ilandelwa ngumphathi-mthetho omkhulu, njalo njalo, kude kube sesona sikhulu sobulungisa. Kweli nqanaba, kumila imibutho emininzi.

Okusesikweni okuphezulu kakhulu koninzi kwabelana ngomsebenzi wokubhala uluvo loninzi. Ukuba iJaji ePhakamileyo ikwisininzi, bayasifumana isabelo. Kungenjalo, isalathisi esiphambili sokusesikweni kwinkoliso yabela solu xwebhu. Eli gunya likhulu, njengoko livumela ukuba kumiselwe okusesikweni kuxonononge ingqiqo esemthethweni kunye nobungakanani besigqibo. IJaji enikiweyo ivumela uluvo oluqululo, olusasazeke phakathi kwezinye izigwebi. Oku kuqalisa inkqubo yokulungisa, ukuhlaziya, nokucebisisa. Amatyala angadibana noluvo, abhale i-conciliki (ecence neziphumo kodwa hayi ingqiqo), okanye abhale uluvo lokugqibela (oluchasayo ngesiphumo).

Impembelelo Ebanzi Kuluntu Nolawulo

Izigqibo ezinikezelwa yiNkundla Ephakamileyo ziphinda zidlulise imigaqo engorhulumente, zichaze ulungelelwano lwamandla phakathi kwamazwe nohlanga, zikhusele amalungelo abantu asisiseko.

Umanyano Nokulungelelana Kwamandla

Inxalenye ebalulekileyo yezibuko leNkundla inkxalabo yeferalis — ukwahlulwa kwamandla phakathi korhulumente worhulumente worhulumente kunye namazwe. UmGaqo-siseko unika amandla athile adweliswe kwiBhunga (njengamandla okulawula urhwebo lwamazwe angaphandle), ngeli lixa ubeka onke amanye amagunya kumazwe. Inkundla isebenza njengombhekisi-okanye kule nkqubo.

Kumthetho we-United States v. Lopez (1995]), iNkundla yawisa phantsi uMthetho weMimandla yeGun-Free School, ilawula ukuba ukuba ukuba nompu kufuphi nesikolo kwakungeyomisebenzi yezoqoqosho eyachaphazela kakhulu kwezoshishino zaseburhulumenteni. Olu yayilutshintsho olukhulu kurhwebo lwangaphambili lorhwebo lukaClausle jurispudence, iphawula umlinganiselo kumandla olawulayo. Ngokuphikisanayo, Arizora v. United States [2020], iNkubethelele imiqathango emininzi yezo yokufuduka, iphethe umthetho ongqongqo we-Ograntialism, obonisa ukuba ukugcinwa kolawulo oluqhelekileyo phantsi kwemfundiso yolawulo lwangaphambili. Le meko ibonisa indlela uGwamGwano lweNkulwano-mthetho-ndel.

Inkululeko Yabemi Neenguqu Entlalweni

INkundla ePhakamileyo idla ngokuba liqonga leengxoxo ezinzulu zentlalo-ntle kulo lonke ilizwe. Imithetho yayo yenkululeko yabemi ingaqinisekisa amalungelo asisiseko okanye imilinganiselo engaqhelekanga. Inkundla yaseWarren (153-1 969) yayisebenza ngokukhethekileyo kule ndawo, yandisa amalungelo amagxamesi (umz. [[FLT: 0]]] imanda v. Arizona ), imisela ilungelo lokuba lize libe lizibophele ([[FLT:]] Gristold.Connecticut[FLT]), kwaye ifuna ukuchola kwe-omati ([FLT]

Kwinkulungwane yama-21, iNkundla yagqiba ukunyuswa kwe-United. FEC (2010), eyaguqula indlela yokusebenza kwezemali ngokulawula ukuba inkampani exhasa iingxowa-mali ezizimeleyo zezobupolitika ayinakulinganiselwa phantsi kweSigqibo Sokuqala. [[FLT:]] "Obergefell v. Hodges [202]] [2020] [20] utshintsho lwengcaciso yomtshato, ukuqinisekisa ukufikelela okulinganayo kwizibini ezikwimeko-zentethe-thekhiwo-langa ezweni lonke. Okuninzi kutsha, Dobs. iJack's Organization yempilo ye-Anstyrvetic , [125] [202] [202] itshintshe imodeli yeminyaka engama-50] ukubuyela kwiimeko ezikhoyo.

Iingxelo Kwisebe Eligwebayo

Phezu kwako nje ukuba namandla kwayo amakhulu, iNkundla Ephakamileyo ayithintelwanga ngokupheleleyo. UmGaqo-siseko unika ezinye iinkqubo eziliqela zokuziphindezela nxamnye neziphambeko zejaji.

Uvavanyo oluthe ngqo luyi- ulungiso lwesigqibo se-unigastigal. Ukuba iNkundla itolika umGaqo-siseko ngendlela yokuba umgangatho omkhulu welizwe ufumanise ukuba awuchananga, amaphondo kunye neBhunga linokucebisa ukubuyiselwa. Umzekelo, uhlaziyo lweshumi elinesibhozo olulawula isigqibo seNkundla [FLT:] [FLT]] [2] [Chroolm v. Georgia [17]], ikhusela amabinzana athile angokwamangalelwa. Isinyuso se-Gqikelelo se-DDD sycottsch [FFF:4] v [FFFFFF] [5] [5]

IBhunga likwanamandla okususa isifungo sokususa . UmGaqo-siseko unika iNgqungquthela amandla okukhetha ulawulo lweNkundla ePhakamileyo. Ngelixesha kunqabileyo kusetyenziswa, iKhomishini inegunya lokuchaza ukususwa kwamatyala athile kwinkundla ye-purview. Okunye, iKhomishini ingabuguqula ubungakanani beNkundla (ukuzama ukuyenza ngokudumileyo nguMongameli uFrankle Rooselt ngecebo lakhe "ubster-paging" ngo19737) kwaye iNxatyiselwano inegunya lokuqinisekisa okanye ukugatya okanye ukungayamkeli izibheno kwibhedlele. Ezi zingqinela ukuba iNkuvolo ihlale ilungele ukungqinelana nokulawula kwemithetho yesizwe, ukuyisebenzisa ngokusebenza kwelizwe lonke.

Isiphelo: Indima edityanisiweyo yeNkundla Ephakamileyo

INkundla ePhakamileyo inendawo ekhethekileyo kwinkqubo yomgaqo-siseko waseMelika. Sisi siko esihlala sihleli, sibotshelelwe ngombhalo womGaqo-siseko kunye nobunzima bemo yeqhinga layo, kwaye amandla anamandla akwaziyo ukuvakalisa imithetho engasebenzi nokubuyisela umgaqo-siseko kwakhona. Xa iNkundla ixhasa umthetho, ixhasa izenzo zamasebe ezobupolitika kwaye iqinisekisa ukuzinza komthetho. Xa iguqula umthetho, isebenza njengomsebenzi wayo ongundoqo njengokhangelo kumandla amaninzi, ikhusela imigaqo engundoqo ebekwe kumGaqo-siseko.

Ukuqonda le ndima idibeneyo kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela ulawulo lwamaMelika olusebenza ngayo. Inkundla ayinawo amandla okunyanzelisa imimiselo yayo okanye isikhwama sokuxhasa. Igunya layo lixhomekeke phantse ekuthembeni kukawonke-wonke ekungakhethini kwayo, ekuqiqeni kwayo, nasekuzibopheleleni kwayo kumthetho. Ngokulawula ngenyameko uxinezeleko phakathi kozinzo notshintsho, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iqinisekisa ukuba umGaqo-siseko uhlala uluxwebhu oluphilayo, uyakwazi ukukhokela uhlanga ngemibanzi yobunzima ehlala ihleli inguluntu. Izigqibo zalo, nokuba ziphakamisa okanye zitshintsha imithetho, ekugqibeleni ziyindlela yokutolika thina njengabantu esizifuna ukuba ngabantu nabafuna ukuba ngabo.