Ukuqonda indlela imithetho ehlolwa nelungelelene ngayo kubalulekile kummi ngamnye ofuna ukuqonda ukusebenza kwenkqubo yethu yedemokhrasi. Ubuchule obuntsonkothileyo bokuhlola nokulinganisela bumela enye yezona nkalo zobuchule zolawulo lomgaqo-siseko, eyenzelwe ukuthintela ukuxinana kwamandla nokukhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Olu khokelo lunentsingiselo luhlola iindlela ezigcina amandla karhulumente esasazwa, ephendula, kwaye esabela kubantu.

Isiseko Sokukhangela Nokulungelelana

UMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States wahlula-hlula amandla okulawula phakathi kwamasebe amathathu karhulumente, udala inkqubo yokuhlola kunye nolungelelwano ukuze uthintele naliphi na iqela elithile ekusebenziseni impembelelo enkulu. Lo mgaqo usisiseko wavela kulwazi olunzulu olunzulu looTata abaFuma imbali nokuzimisela kwabo ukuphepha ubuzwilakhe ababenabo phantsi kolawulo lweBritane.

Ukwahlula amagunya ukuba ahlulele, aphumeze, aphumeze, nakumasebe karhulumente ahlukeneyo yayiyingcamango eqhelekile kumasebe eFrame, kunye nesazi sezobupolitika uBaron Charles de Montesquieu ebhale ngolwahlulo lwamagunya malunga neminyaka elishumi ngaphambili. Abaxhasi bahlolisisa iintlobo ezahlukeneyo zorhulumente kuyo yonke imbali kwaye baqonda ukuba ukunikela igunya elininzi kakhulu kuyo nayiphi na into engomeleyo kwakhokelela ekuxhatshazweni.

UJames Madison, owathi kamva waba ngumongameli wesine waseUnited States, wathetha ngenkxalabo yakhe ngokunyuka kweenkokeli ezinemabango kakhulu ngo1788 kwaye waphikisa ukuba kubekho izakhiwo zokulinganisela amandla karhulumente karhulumente kuFederal 51, ephawula ukuba inkqubo yokuhlola nokulungelelanisa amandla yayibalulekile "ukukhutshwa kwenkululeko" uluvo lukaMadison lusasebenza ngokuphawulekayo namhlanje, njengoko uxinezeleko phakathi kolawulo olusebenzayo norhulumente olusikelwe umda luqhubeka lubumba iingxoxo zezobupolitika.

Ngelixesha umGaqo-siseko wawusebenza kakhulu le migaqo, ukwahlukana kwamandla kwabalawuli kwakungekho nzima, kodwa waquka inkqubo yokuhlola kunye nolungelelwano apho elinye isebe lalinokuhlola amandla awabelwe elinye. Oku kubhexeshiswa kuvumela inkqubo ukuba ilungelelanise nokutshintsha kweemeko ngeli lixa igcina imisebenzi yalo engundoqo yokukhusela.

Amasebe Amathathu Karhulumente

Isebe Lomthetho: Ukwenza Imithetho

IGatya 1 loMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States limisela iSebe loMgaqo-siseko, eliquka iBhunga, kunye neNgqungquthela, ukongezelela kwezinye iimbopheleleko ezidwelisweyo, linembopheleleko yokuyila imithetho. Isebe lowiso-mthetho limela eyona ndlela ithe ngqo yokubonakaliswa kolongamo oluqhelekileyo kurhulumente worhulumente, namalungu anyulwa ngabemi ukuba amele izilangazelelo nemilinganiselo yabo.

IBhunga linezindlu ezimbini: iNdlu yeNdlu kunye neNdlu yabameli, kwaye inokuzikhupha i-veto enguMongameli nge-2/3 yevoti kuzo zombini izindlu. Esi sakhiwo se-bimeral ngokwaso simela uvavanyo lwangaphakathi ngaphakathi kwisebe lewiso-mthetho, sifuna isivumelwano phakathi kweziqu ezibini ezinee-intertituation ezahlukeneyo kunye nee-ofisi ezahlukeneyo. Indlu yabameli, kunye namagunya ayo eminyaka emibini, isabela ngokukhawuleza ngakumbi ekuguqukeni ngoluvo lwasekuhlaleni, ngelixa iNxantathu, ngemibandela yeminyaka emithandathu, inika uzinzo olukhulu kunye nokuqhubekeka okuqhubekayo.

IBhunga linamandla ayintloko okuyila nokumisa imithetho, ukuvakalisa imfazwe, ukulawula urhwebo, nokulawula ukurhafisa kunye nokusebenzisa imali. La mandla adwelisweyo anika impembelelo enkulu kwiNgqungquthela kuwo omabini amakhaya nakwamanye amazwe. Eli gunya lesipaji semali `igunya lokuhlawula irhafu nokusebenzisa `inye yezixhobo zeBhunga elibalulekileyo ukubumba izinto eziphambili zesizwe nokuhlola amandla olawulo lwesizwe.

Inkqubo yowiso-mthetho ngokwayo ibandakanya amaqondo amaninzi okuhlola, ingxoxo, kunye nokulungisa. IiBhili kufuneka zidlule kwiikomiti, kwiingxoxo zomgangatho, kunye namavoti kuwo omabini amagumbi ngaphambi kokuba zifike kwidesika yomongameli. Le nkqubo yokukhupha ityala, ngexa igxekwa njengecothayo okanye enzima, iqinisekisa ukuba umthetho ufumana uhlolisiso olucokisekileyo ngokweembono ezininzi ngaphambi kokuba ube ngumthetho.

Isebe Elinolawulo Oluphezulu: Ukuthobela Imithetho

Isebe eliphetheyo, elikhokelwa ngumongameli waseUnited States, lilawula amasebe namasebe aqhuba inkqubo yamakhaya nawamanye amazwe aseMerika. Umongameli usebenza njengentloko yorhulumente nomphathi karhulumente, uphethe amandla amakhulu kwiindawo ezisuka kukhuseleko lwesizwe ukuya kumgaqo-nkqubo wolawulo.

Isebe elilawulayo linembopheleleko yokuvuma nokuphumeza umthetho kwaye liquka uMongameli, uMongameli onguMongameli, kunye namalungu alishumi elinesihlanu aphetheyo ekhabhathi, uMongameli waseUnited States enamandla okuvakalisa imeko yexesha likaxakeka okanye ukukhupha umongameli wokuxolela umntu onetyala lolwaphulo-mthetho. La mandla avumela umphathi ophetheyo ukuba aphendule ngokukhawuleza kwiimeko ezithile aze abonise inceba kwiimeko ngazinye.

Isebe elilawulayo linembopheleleko yokunyanzelisa nokumisela imithetho karhulumente edluliswa yiBhunga, kwaye umongameli angawubeka umthetho odluliselwe yiNgqungquthela kunye nabagwebi abagwebi abalawulayo kwimigangatho eyahlukeneyo, enika isebe eliphetheyo amandla okuhlola inyathelo lowiso-mthetho nelokugweba. Eli gunya limela uvavanyo olubalulekileyo kwigunya lombutho, nangona linokungaphazanyiswa ngamagunya amabini anesithathu aphezulu kuzo zombini izindlu.

Isebe elilawulayo lingavakalisa iMithetho eLawulayo, efana nezibhengezo ezithwala impembelelo yomthetho, kodwa isebe eligwebayo lingavakalisa ezo zenzo zingekho mgaqweni. Imiyalelo yegunya iye yaba zizixhobo ezibaluleke ngakumbi kwisenzo sobumongameli, ingakumbi xa i-projekthi yemithetho ithintela iBhunga lowiso-mthetho ekucombululeni imibandela engxamisekileyo. Noko ke, ukusetyenziswa kwalo kuhlala kuphikisana, yaye abagxeki bephikisa ukuba ukuxhomekeka kakhulu kwimiyalelo yegunya-ofisi yezomthetho kuyenza ingasebenzi.

Isebe Lejaji: Ukutolika Imithetho

INkundla ePhakamileyo, encotsheni yesebe eligwebayo, yeyona nkundla iphakamileyo eUnited States kwaye liqumrhu lokugqibela elenza izigqibo kumthetho nakuMgaqo-siseko, kwaye linokubhukuqa izigqibo zeenkundla ezisezantsi nemithetho ejongwa njengeyaphula umGaqo-siseko. Inkululeko yejaji ekuziphelweni kweengcinezelo zobupolitika.

INkundla yeyona nkundla iphakamileyo kwiNkundla yamatyala onke nakwiimpikiswano eziqukunjelwa phantsi komGaqo-siseko okanye imithetho yaseUnited States, kwaye njengommeli wokugqibela womthetho, iNkundla ibekwe ityala lokuqinisekisa abantu baseMerika ukuba bathenjiswe ngokusesikweni okulinganayo phantsi komthetho kwaye ngaloo ndlela isebenza njengonogada notoliko lomGaqo-siseko. Le ndima ibeka imbopheleleko enkulu emagxeni abagwebi bephondo, ingakumbi abagwebi beNkuMkhosi ePhakamileyo ababumba umthetho waseMerika ngokwezizukulwana.

Ngenxa yamandla ayo okuhlola isigwebo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yenza indima ebalulekileyo ekuqinisekiseni ukuba isebe ngalinye likarhulumente liyayiqaphela imida yamandla alo. Lo msebenzi uye wenza iNkundla yaba ngumchasi obalulekileyo kwiimpikiswano phakathi kwamasebe naphakathi koorhulumente borhulumente norhulumente.

Amandla Okuphengulula Ngokweejaji

Imvelaphi Nokusekwa

Enye inkalo engundoqo yamandla ejaji equlunqwe ngurhulumente kukuhlola isigwebo, igunya leenkundla zephondo lokuvakalisa ukuba izenzo zikarhulumente zikarhulumente ziyawonakalisa umGaqo-siseko, nangona umGaqo-siseko ungawaniki ngokuphandle amandla eenkundla zikarhulumente ukuba avakalise izenzo ezingekho ngokomthetho. Ukungabikho kolwimi olucacileyo lwemigaqo-siseko ngokuphathelele ukuhlolisiswa kwetyala kuye kwakhokelela kwiingxoxo eziqhubekayo malunga nokufaneleka kwalo nomgangatho ofanelekileyo.

Uninzi lwabaSeki Bokuseka lwalulindele ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo ithabathe le ndima ngokuphathelele umGaqo-siseko; umzekelo, uAlexander Hamilton noJames Madison, bagxininise ukubaluleka kohlolo lwezomthetho kumaPhepha oLuntu, akhuthaza ukusetyenziswa koMgaqo-siseko. Hamilton waphikisa ngelithi uhlolo lomthetho luqinisekisa ukuthanda kwabantu, njengoko kuboniswe kumGaqo-siseko, luza kuphumelela kwiintloko-mthetho zokwexeshana.

Uhlolo lomthetho lorhulumente lwamiselwa kwisigqibo esiphawulekayo sikaMarbury v. Madison, isigqibo sokuqala seNkundla ePhakamileyo sokubetha isenzo soMbutho njengesixhobo esingesosigunyaziso, ngomgca odumileyo osuka kuMphathi-mthetho omkhulu uJohn Marshall: "Kungumsebenzi ogxininisiweyo weSebe lezeJaji ukuchaza oko umthetho ukuko." Esi sigqibo so-1803 sabumba umthetho-siseko waseMelika saza samisa isebe lejaji elilinganayo norhulumente.

Amandla eNkundla ophando lwezomthetho awaqinisekiswanga de kube ngowe - 1803, xa yabheniswa nguJaji omkhulu uJohn Marshall kwi-Marbury v. Madison, apho iJaji eyiNtloko ePhakamileyo yagxininisa ukuba umthetho weNkundla ePhakamileyo wokubhukuqa ululawulo wawungumphumela oyimfuneko wenkonzo yayo efungelweyo yokuxhasa umGaqo-siseko. Ingcinga kaMarshall yayigxininisa ukuba abagwebi bamele ukufungela umGaqo-siseko, obekungamele ukuba babenomsebenzi ukuba babeyakufuneka banyanzelwe umthetho owesawuphulayo.

Umda kunye neNkqubo

Iinkundla zomanyano nezorhulumente kuwo onke amanqanaba, zombini isigwebo, ziyakwazi ukuhlolisisa nokuvakalisa ubume bomthetho ngokuchaza inkqubo yomthetho ngokubhekiselele kwityala elifanelekileyo elikwigunya lawo, ngokuhlola okubhekiselele ngokuyintloko ekumiselweni komgaqo-siseko, ingakumbi yiNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States. Oku kuthetha ukuba imibuzo yezomgaqo-siseko ingaphakama kuyo nayiphi na inkundla, nangona iNkundla ePhakamileyo inegama lokugqibela lokutolika komgaqo-siseko.

Imfundiso yeJaji ayipheleliswanga kwizenzo zikarhulumente kuphela, kodwa ikwayandisa kwizenzo zikarhulumente, iUnited States iNkundla Ephakamileyo eFletcher v. Peck (1810) iwisa umthetho wesizwe njengongawisi mthetho ngenxa yokwaphulwa kwawo nguMphathiswa Clause. Oku kuhlolwa kwemithetho yezomthetho kuye kwafuneka kakhulu ekulondolozeni ukulingana kwesizwe kwimibuzo yomgaqo-siseko nokukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye ngokuchasene nomthetho.

INkundla ePhakamileyo ingenza isigqibo sokuba umyalelo olawulayo awuvumelani nomthetho, igunya leenkokeli okanye ukwaphula umGaqo-siseko. Eli gunya liye labaluleka ngakumbi njengoko oomongameli bethembele kakhulu kwimiyalelo yegunya ukuzalisekisa inkqubo.

Indlela Amasebe Ajongana Ngayo

Ukukhangela Umthetho Kumandla alawulayo

Isebe lowiso-mthetho linamandla esipaji, amandla okutyumza umongameli, namandla okuqesha nomlilo kumasebe ejaji nalawulayo. La magunya anika iKhomishini amandla anamandla okuxhobisa amanye amasebe, nangona ukusebenza kwawo kuxhomekeke ekukulungeleni ukusebenzisa loo ngqungquthela.

IBhunga lingamgweba umongameli ngolwaphulo-mthetho oluphezulu, njengobuqhetseba okanye ukunyoba, kunye neNdlu yabameli enegunya lokuzisa izityholo ezichaphazelekayo kuMongameli kunye neNdlu yeeNdlu yeeNgwevu ezinamandla okubanjwa nokususa uMongameli eofisini. I-Impeajucation imela uvavanyo olupheleleyo kumandla olawulo oluphezulu, nangona iye yasetyenziswa ngokuncipha kuyo yonke imbali yamaMelika ngenxa yombindi wezobupolitika nomGaqo-siseko.

IKhomishini iqinisekisa okanye iyala okanye iyala umongameli. Le siqinisekiso sidlulisela kumagosa orhulumente, abagwebi borhulumente, oothunywa, namanye amagosa aphezulu abeka izithuba, inika iNdlu yeeNqila impembelelo ebalulekileyo kukwenziwa kwamasebe aphetheyo nagweba. Le nkqubo yokuqinisekisa ivumela abaququzeleli ukuba bahlolisise iimfaneleko zomtyunjwa, intanda-ntanda-bulumko, kunye nokufaneleka kwesikhundla.

IKhomishini isenokuziphakamisa iiveto ezilawulayo ngokuvota umthetho kwakhona nangokuwudlulisa ngobuninzi obu-2/3. Nangona ukuwulawula kunqabile, isisongelo sokungalawuleki sisenokuphembelela izigqibo zomongameli zokuba ngaba ufanele uwise umthetho okanye awuphonononge kwasekuqaleni.

Iingcebiso Zomthetho Ngamandla Eejaji

Isebe eligwebayo lichaza imithetho, kodwa iNdlu yeeNdlu zeMasahlulo eqinisekisa ukutyunjwa koMongameli ngezikhundla zokugweba, kwaye iNgqungquthela ingamgatya nabani na waba jaji ize ibasuse kwisikhundla. Eli gunya liqinisekisa ukuba abagwebi, phezu kwako nje ukutyunjwa kwabo ubomi babo bonke, bahlala benoxanduva lokuziphatha okubi okunzulu.

IBhunga lingasihlola isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo ngokudlulisa izilungiso zomGaqo-siseko. Nangona ukulungisa kunzima ngabom, kufuna ukuba kubekho izakhiwo ezinkulu kwiBhunga kunye nokudityaniswa ngamaphondo amathathu anesine, linika abantu iqhinga lokulawula iinkcazelo zomthetho zomGaqo-siseko abazifumani ukuba azimkelekanga.

IBhunga likwalawula indlela elungelelaniswe ngayo negunya leenkundla zikarhulumente. Kunokudala okanye kushenxise iinkundla ezisezantsi, kuhlengahlengise igunya lazo, kwanokwenza utshintsho kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo, nangona ezo nguqulelo zinqabile yaye zingenamsebenzi kwezobupolitika.

Isebe elilawulayo Lihlola Amandla oMthetho

Isebe lowiso-mthetho lenza imithetho, kodwa uMongameli kwisebe eliphetheyo angayikhuthaza loo mithetho kunye noMongameli Veto. I-veto inyanzelisa iKhomishini yamandla ukuba iqwalasele izinto eziza kuqala kumongameli kunye nenkxalabo yakhe xa esenza umthetho, ikhuthaza unxibelelwano kunye nolalanisa phakathi kwamasebe.

Irhuluneli okanye uMongameli wase-U.S. unamandla okukhupha nawuphi na umthetho omtsha odluliswa lisebe lowiso-mthetho, ngoko, ukuba isebe lowiso-mthetho liwuxhasa ngamandla umthetho omtsha, linokuwuphelisa loo mthetho ngevoti enkulu. Le mpembelelo yenza ulungelelwano apho kungekho lisebe linokuzimela ngokwalo ngokupheleleyo kwimicimbi yemithetho.

Indima kamongameli ekumiseleni ucwangciso lwemithetho ngentetho yeSizwe soMbuso kunye nezicelo zenkqubo ikwachaphazela oko iBhunga likugqalayo, nangona iKhomishini inegunya elipheleleyo lokuthatha nokudlula kwemali.

Ukukhangela Amandla Eejaji

Isebe lejaji lichaza imithetho, kodwa uMongameli ubeka izigwebi zeNkundla ePhakamileyo, inkundla yabagwebi bezibheno, kunye nabagwebi benkundla yesithili abavavanya. Ukumiswa komongameli kubumba uxwebhu lwejaji kunye nentanda-bulumko kangangamashumi eminyaka, ukwenza imimiselo engokwahlulelwa ngokwezigqibo ezilandelayo zomongameli.

Amandla kamongameli okuxolela kunye nokukhupha izicelo anika olunye uvavanyo kwiziphumo zomthetho, evumela inceba yegunya ukuba inciphise ubungqongqo bokugweba kwiimeko nganye. Eli gunya ligqibelele kwaye alinakuphinda lihlaziywe ziinkundla okanye lingenziwa yiBhunga.

Ukuhlolisisa Imithetho Yamandla

Isebe lowiso-mthetho lenza imithetho, kodwa isebe eligwebayo lingayivakalisa loo mithetho ngaphandle komgaqo-siseko. Eli gunya lokuhlola isigwebo limela olona vavanyo lubalulekileyo lwejaji kwamanye amasebe, liqinisekisa ukuba yonke inyathelo likarhulumente lihambelana neemfuno zomgaqo-siseko.

Isebe lezeeJaji lingavakalisa izenzo zoMongameli ezingavumelaniyo nomthetho, ozisusayo kumthetho, kwaye kwakhona lisenokuvakalisa imithetho edluliswa yiBhunga ukuba ingavumelani nemithetho epheleleyo okanye ngokwenxalenye. La mandla angenza isigwebo sibe ngunogada opheleleyo wemiqathango yomgaqo-siseko kumandla karhulumente.

Isebe eligwebayo linegunya lokulawula ukuba umthetho uphule amalungelo abemi okanye ezinye iinxalenye zomgaqo-siseko, kwaye ukuba isebe lezomthetho ligqiba umthetho ngokuthi "awuvumelani nomthetho," alinakuphinda linyanzeliswe lisebe elilawulayo. Eli gunya likhusela amalungelo abantu ngabanye kunye nezilangazelelo ezincinane kwiinkokeli eziphetheyo.

Ucelomngeni Lokujamelana Nobunzima Nokulungelelana

Ukwanda Kwamandla Alawulayo

Kwiminyaka engama-25 edluleyo, amandla omongameli aye akhula ngokungqinelana nokokuba amandla eBhunga eliphetheyo ajonge isebe ancipha, ekubeni isebe lejaji likwisebe lokugqibela njengoko umongameli ephukile kuyo yonke imida yalo. Olu tshintsho luye lwaphakamisa inkxalabo kubaphengululi bomGaqo-siseko nakubemi malunga nokuba umlinganiselo obonwa ngabalawuli baseFrames usekho kusini na.

Abalawuli abasuka kuGeorge W. Bush ukuya kuDonald Trump baye bathembela ngokungakumbi kwisenzo solawulo sokugqitha kwiBhunga, ngokuvunywa ngamaqela abo, bethoba impembelelo yeBhunga. Le ntsingiselo ibonisa ukungalungelelani kombutho kunye nephulo lomongameli, ngehambo yesebe ngalinye eliphembelela omnye.

Ulwandiso lwamandla olawulo oluphezulu luye lwenzeka kwiindawo ezininzi, kuquka ukhuseleko lwesizwe, inkqubo yolawulo, kunye nemicimbi yamanye amazwe. Abalawuli baye basebenzisa ngokuqhubekayo imiyalelo yegunya, iingxelo zokutyikitya, kunye nemiyalelo yolawulo ukuzalisekisa iinkqubo ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa yingqungquthela, bephikisa ukuba uwiso-mthetho lufuna inyathelo lolawulo oluphezulu.

I-Assorder Congress Igunya

IBhunga lifak' isandla ekungalungelelaniseni ngokunika abasemagunyeni abaphetheyo igunya elibalulekileyo kwaye ukusilela ukusebenzisa iimbopheleleko zalo zolawulo ngamandla. Ukungahambelani nokulawula kuye kwenza kwaba nzima ngeNkqutyana ukumisela umthetho, kudala ikhamandela elizaliswe ziinkqubo zegunya.

Ukuncipha kwentengiso yengqungquthela kubonakalisa oothunywashe abaliqela, kuquka ubungozi bezobupolitika bokuthatha izikhundla eziphikisanayo, ukuntsonkotha kolawulo lwale mihla, kunye nentshukumisa ebangelwa yingqalelo nengxowa-mali yamajelo eendaba. Amalungu eBhunga afumanisa kulula ukugxeka izenzo zokulawula kunokumisela izicombululo kwiingxaki ezinzima.

Izisongelo Zenkululeko Yogwebo

Uhlolisiso olwenziwe kwihlobo elidlulileyo kwiZiko lophando lwePew lwafumanisa ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo, ekwathi kude kube mvanje yabe yeyona ihlonelwayo kwaye inconywa kakhulu kumasebe amathathu karhulumente, ityibilikile kuxabiso lukawonke-wonke, imbono entle yenkundla yokuba ama- 22 eepesenti angaphantsi kunaleyo yayinjalo ngoAgasti 2020, xa ama-70% amaMelika ayenembono elungileyo. Oku kuncipha kwentembelo yoluntu kusongela amandla eNkusebenza njengempumelelo kuvavanyo kwamanye amasebe.

Xa uthe watshabalalisa ukufaneleka kwenkundla, ukuthembeka kwenkundla, akuyi kubuya. Igunya leNkundla lixhomekeke ekumkeleni ekuhleni izigqibo zayo njengenkcazelo esemthethweni yomthetho kunokuba ichazwe ngokwezobupolitika, isenza ukuthemba uluntu kube yimfuneko kwindima yalo emiselwe.

Iinkundla ezingokwasemthethweni, izityholo zokwenziwa kwezaphuli-mthetho, neengxoxo ezimalunga nohlaziyo lweNkundla, konke oku kufake igalelo ekuncipheni kwentembelo kwinkululeko yenkundla. Ezi zinto ziphakamisa imibuzo esisiseko ngendlela yokuzigcina umgangatho wejaji ozimeleyo kwimeko yezobupolitika egabangayo.

Indima Yomanyano Lwamatyala Nolungelelwano

Urhulumente kunye noMandla oManyano

Nawaphi na amagunya angengomagunya karhulumente worhulumente worhulumente ngamnye. Lo mgaqo wolawulo lwamagunya udala ukwahlulwa okuthe nkqo kwamagunya okuphelelisa ukwahlulwa okuthe tyaba phakathi kwamasebe amathathu orhulumente. Amazwe asebenza njengeelaboratori zedemokhrasi, ezama iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokuzama iingxaki zenkqubo kwaye anika ezinye iindlela ezinokusetyenziswa kumsebenzi worhulumente.

Urhulumente worhulumente waseUnited States kunye noorhulumente abangamashumi amane bahlula oorhulumente babo babe ngamasebe amathathu. Umgaqo-siseko omninzi karhulumente ubonakalisa isakhiwo sorhulumente, udala iinkqubo zawo zokuhlola kunye nezilinganiso kumgangatho karhulumente. Oku kwahlula imodeli karhulumente kuwo onke amaphondo kuqinisa umgaqo othi amandla akhusele inkululeko.

Ulwalamano phakathi kwamandla karhulumente norhulumente luye lwaguquka ngokuphawulekayo ekuhambeni kwexesha, urhulumente wesizwe ethatha igunya elingakumbi kwiindawo ezininzi ngeli xesha oorhulumente begcina imbopheleleko eyintloko kwabanye. Olu xinezeleko lunamandla phakathi kwegunya lohlanga nelorhulumente lunika omnye umlinganiso wovavanyo nolungelelwano, luthintela ukuxinezeleka okugqithisileyo kwamandla kumgangatho ngamnye.

Ukuhlolisiswa Kwezenzo Zoburhulumente

KuMartin v. Hunter's Lespee (1816), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States yanyanzelisa ukuba igunya leSupremacy Claus liqulethwe kwiGatya lesi-4 lomGaqo-siseko, ichaza ukuba linegunya lokuhlola izigqibo zenkundla yenkundla ezibandakanya ukutolikwa komthetho karhulumente okanye umGaqo-siseko weUnited States ngokwawo, ithethelela eli gunya lisekelwe kwimfuno efanayo yomgaqo worhulumente ngamnye nakuwo onke amazwe akwi-Uni. Eli gunya liqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo omgaqo-siseko afumana ukhuseleko oluzinzileyo kungakhathaliseki ukuba abemi bahlala phi na.

Uhlolo lomthetho olumanyeneyo lwezenzo zikarhulumente luye lwabaluleke ngokukhethekileyo ekukhuseleni amalungelo abantu kunye nenkululeko yabemi, ukuthintela iimeko ekuphuleni iziqinisekiso zomGaqo-siseko. Izigqibo zophawu zibetha ukuhlahlela ulawulo olugawulweyo, imiqathango yamalungelo okuvota, kunye nemiqathango yokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo zonke ezi zinto zixhomekeke kwigunya leenkundla zesizwe lokuhlola izenzo zikarhulumente.

Ummi Unenxaxheba Kwiindlela Nokulungelelana

Amandla Omlozi

Abantu banawo amandla okuvota kubameli babo rhoqo kwiminyaka emibini kwaye abaPhathi-nxaxheba babo rhoqo emva kweminyaka emi-6. Unyulo lumela olona vavanyo lubalulekileyo kumandla karhulumente, luvumela abemi ukuba baphendulise amagosa ngezenzo zabo baze bathathe indawo yabo abo bangancedisiyo kuluntu.

Ngokukhetha abameli nabaLawuli babo, abantu abanempembelelo engangqalanga eyinxalenye yesebe lejaji. Le mpembelelo inokwenzeka ngokungangqalanga kwinkqubo yokutyunjwa nokuqinisekiswa, namagosa anyuliweyo akhetha abagwebi abaza kukhonza ubomi babo bonke. Iinketho zokhetho lwabemi zineziphumo ezingapheliyo zokwenziwa kwejaji nentanda-bulumko.

Ukunika intsebenziswano ngamathuba angaphaya konyulo lwamaqumrhu orhulumente nolwasekuhlaleni, amanyathelo okuvota, kunye nokuthatha inxaxheba kokhetho. Ezi ndlela ezahlukeneyo zokuthabatha inxaxheba zinika abemi amathuba amaninzi okubumba inkqubo karhulumente nokugcina amagosa etyala.

IziHlaziso zoMgaqo-siseko

Abantu baseUnited States banokuthintela ukutshintshwa komGaqo-siseko yiKhonkxa-siseko ukuba 3/4 yamazwe ayala ukuhlaziya utshintsho. Eli gunya liqinisekisa ukuba iinguqu ezingundoqo kwisakhiwo somGaqo-siseko zifuna ukuba kuvumelane kakhulu kulo lonke uhlanga, ukuthintela izinto ezinkulu zokwexeshana ukuba zingaguqule umgaqo-siseko karhulumente.

Le nkqubo yokulungisa ivumela abemi ukuba balungise iimpazamo ezicingwayo kuMgaqo-siseko okanye babhukuqe izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo abazifumanisi ukuba azimkelekanga. Nangona zinqabile izilungiso, zisenokukhumbuza amagosa karhulumente ukuba ulongamo olupheleleyo luxhomekeke ebantwini.

Ubuchule nokuzibandakanya noluntu

Abemi banendima ebalulekileyo ekulondolozeni ii-checks nokulungelelana ngokubeka intetho yesidlangalala, nokubophana ngezenzo zikarhulumente, ngokuqhagamshelana namagosa anyuliweyo, ngokuthabatha inxaxheba ekuchotshelweni kwabantu ngokubanzi, nangokuxhasa imibutho ejonge urhulumente, abemi banceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba banokuphendula nokubonakala.

Ukhuseleko loMphetho wokuqala wenkululeko yokuthetha, yokushicilela, yokuhlanganisa, yendibano, kunye nesibongozo silungiselela izixhobo ezibalulekileyo zongamela abami borhulumente. Ukucofa okukhululekileyo kusebenza njengenja egadayo, iphanda izenzo zikarhulumente kwaye yazisa uluntu. Imibutho yezolawulo ikhuthaza abemi kwiimbambano ezithile kwaye igcina amagosa ebeke ityala ngezikhundla zabo namavoti abo.

Uluvo lukawonke wonke, nangona lungelulo uphando olusesikweni ngegunya likarhulumente, luphembelela indlela amagosa asebenzisa ngayo igunya lawo.

Imfundo Nenxaxheba

Ukuqonda indlela umsebenzi owenziwa ngayo nokulungelelana kufuna imfundo karhulumente enceda abemi baqonde isiseko somGaqo-siseko nendima yabo kuso. Izikolo, imibutho yezentlalo, namajelo eendaba konke kunegalelo kule misebenzi yemfundo, nangona ixhala liqhubeka lisihla kolwazi lwamaMerika olungokwentlalo.

Ukuba ngummi okhutheleyo kubandakanya okungaphezulu kunokuvota. Kufuna ukuba uhlale wazi kakuhle ngeziganeko zangoku, ukuqonda iimbono ezahlukeneyo ngemibandela yezomthetho, ukunikela intetho yamakhaya nabo baneembono ezahlukeneyo, nokuba nenxaxheba kwimibutho nemisebenzi yasekuhlaleni. Ezi ndlela zokubhalisa zomeleza amaziko edemokhrasi kwaye zinceda ekulondolozeni ulungelelwano lwegunya.

Imizekelo Esebenzisekayo Yokuhlola Nokulungelelana Okusebenzayo

Ukungakhathalelwa koMongameli Veto

Xa iKhomishini inikezela umthetho ngenkxaso enkulu ye-bipartisan, ingayigatya i-veto engumongameli, ibonisa ukuba umthetho uya kulawula ngaphezu kwenkcaso yegunya xa kukho imvumelwano eyaneleyo. Oku kuxolelwano kunqabile, kwenzeka kuphela xa iBhunga livakalelwa linamandla ngokwaneleyo malunga nomthetho odibanisa intlawulo enkulu kakhulu ekwiziqendu ezibini.

IVito idla ngokuzibetha ngoyaba imbambano ngokuxhaswa nguwonke wonke okanye xa iNkqutyana ikholelwa ukuba umongameli uphulukene nomthetho othandwayo. Isisongelo sokungalawuleki sisenokuphembelela isimilo somongameli, ikhuthaza ukuncokola nokulalanisa kunokuba kungquzulwane.

Ukungagunyaziswa komthetho ogwetywayo

Xa iinkundla ziwisa imithetho njengengavumelaniyo nemithetho, zibonisa indima yejaji njengokulondoloza imida yemithetho-siseko kumandla karhulumente. Ezi zigqibo zingaphikisana, ingakumbi xa ziwisa umthetho odluliselwe ngabameli abanyuliweyo, kodwa zisebenza umsebenzi obalulekileyo wokukhusela amalungelo omgaqo-siseko nokugcina umthetho.

Uhlolo lwezeejaji luye lwanegalelo ekwandiseni amalungelo abantu, ukukhusela inkululeko yokuthetha, ukuqinisekisa inkqubo efanelekileyo, nokuthintela ukuqhathwa kukarhulumente. Ngoxa ezinye izigqibo zingqineka zithanda impikiswano kwaye zivelisa imfuneko yokuba kugwetywe ikomiti, amandla okuhlola ahlala eyimfuneko ekulawuleni komGaqo-siseko.

Ukugatywa kweNdlela yokuHlanganiselwa koMongameli

Xa iNdlu yeeNtsimbi ingavumi ukuqinisekisa ukuba oomongameli bakwizikhundla zobugcisa, iinqanawa zokwahlulela okanye ezinye iiofisi, isebenzisa indima yayo engokomGaqo-siseko ekuhloleni ukubekwa kwesebe eliphetheyo. Oku kungabangelwa zizizathu ezahlukahlukeneyo, kuquka inkxalabo ngeemfaneleko, iingcamango, indlela yokuziphatha, okanye indlela yokuziphatha.

Le nkqubo yokuqinisekisa ivumela abaququzeleli ukuba bahlolisise ii-asmente ngokuva, uphando lwemvelaphi, kunye neengxoxo zomgangatho. Ngelixesha inkoliso yabasemagunyeni ekugqibeleni iqinisekiswa, le nkqubo ngokwayo isebenza njengovavanyo kumandla obungamongameli ngokuqinisekisa ukuba abamiselwe bafumana iposi epheleleyo phambi kokuba bathathe i-ofisi.

Ulawulo nophando oluseluxongweni

Iikomiti zolawulo lweBhunga ziqhuba ukuchongwa nokuphandwa kwemiqathango nokujongwa kwemisebenzi yesebe eliphetheyo, ukutyhila ububi, nokuqinisekisa ukuba imithetho iphunyezwe ngendlela efunwa ngayo. Le misebenzi yolawulo imela uvavanyo olubalulekileyo kumandla olawulo, kwanaxa ingaphumeleli kumthetho.

Ukulawula kungenza iindlela ezininzi, kuquka uhlolo loqingqo-mali, uhlolo lwenkqubo, uphando lokuthelekelelwa ukuba kukukuziphatha okubi, nokuva okuchanekileyo kokuphunyezwa kwenkqubo. Ngoxa ulawulo maxa wambi lugxekwa njengoluhluzi-mthetho okanye njengendawo yemidlalo, lusebenza umsebenzi obalulekileyo wokuba isebe eliphetheyo libeke ityala kwiBhunga nakuluntu.

Imbono Yamazwe Ngamazwe Ngokuxinana Nokulungelelana

INkundla ePhakamileyo "icacile eMelika kwingqiqo nomsebenzi," njengoko uMgwebi oPhakamileyo uCharles Evans Hughes waphawula, kunye nezinye iinkundla ezimbalwa ehlabathini ezinegunya elifanayo lokutolika umGaqo-siseko yaye akukho nanye eye yayisebenzisa ixesha elide okanye enempembelelo enkulu. Inkqubo yovavanyo nolungelelwaniso iphembele inkqubo yomGaqo-siseko ehlabathini lonke, nangona amazwe awahlukeneyo aye avumelanisa le migaqo kwiimeko nakwizithethe zawo.

Emva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II amazwe amaninzi aye aziva enengcinezelo enamandla yokuba amkele uhlolo logwebo, umphumo wempembelelo yeengcamango zomGaqo-siseko wase-United States qha, ngokungakumbi ingcamango yokuba inkqubo yokuhlola nokulungelelanisa umGaqo-siseko iyinxalenye ebalulekileyo karhulumente wedemokhrasi. Oku kusasaza kwembali yehlabathi lonke kubonisa ukuba ukukhusela amalungelo omgaqo-siseko kufuna iinkundla ezizimeleyo ezinegunya lokuhlola uwiso-mthetho kunye namandla olawulo oluphezulu.

Amazwe awahlukeneyo aye enza iingqikelelo kunye nolungelelwano ngeendlela ezahlukahlukeneyo, kunye nezinye iinkundla ezizodwa zomGaqo-siseko, ezinye zamkela iinkqubo zepalamente ezinolwalamano olwahlukileyo phakathi kwamasebe alawulayo kunye nawowiso-mthetho, kwaye ezinye zivelisa iinkqubo ezingaqhelekanga ezixubileyo. Ezi ntlobo zibonisa ukuba nangona umgaqo wamagunya ahlukeneyo wamkelekile ngokubanzi, ukuphunyezwa kwawo kunokuthi kube ziintlobo ezininzi.

Ukugcina Iindlela Eziluncedo Nolungelelwano

Imigaqo-nkqubo yezentlalo nezenzo

Iingqikelelo nolungelelwano luxhomekeke kungekuphela nje kwisakhiwo somGaqo-siseko kodwa nakwimigaqo yemibutho kunye noqheliselo oluye lwaphuhliswa ekuhambeni kwexesha. Le mithetho kunye nolindelo lubumba indlela amagosa asebenzisa ngayo amandla awo kwaye asebenzisana ngayo namanye amasebe. Xa le migaqo iwohloka, isakhiwo somgaqo-siseko esisemthethweni singangqineka singanele ukugcina ulungelelwano.

Izithethe ezibalulekileyo ziquka ukuhlonela amalungelo asemthethweni, ukuvuma ukulalanisa, ukunamathela kwimizekelo, ukubonakala ngokucacileyo kwimisebenzi karhulumente, nokwamkelwa kweziphumo zonyulo. Xa amagosa eshiya le migaqo elandela ungenelo olufutshane lwezopolitiko, enza buthathaka inkqubo yonke yokuhlola nolungelelwano.

Indima Yemibhiyozo Yezobupolitika

Amaqela ezobupolitika anendima entsonkothileyo ekunqandeni nasekulinganiseni. Kwelinye icala, ukunyaniseka okuchaseneyo kusenokuwathoba amanyathelo amaziko xa amalungu eBhunga ebeka inxaxheba kwisebe, engavumi ukukhangela umongameli weqela lawo. Kwelinye icala, amaqela alungiselela ulungelelwaniso nokulungelelaniso olubangela ukuba kubekho urhulumente.

Ucelomngeni kukulondoloza ulungelelwano olufanelekileyo phakathi kokunyaniseka kobuhlanga kunye noxanduva lwamaqumrhu. Amalungu eKhontrakthi kufuneka akulungele ukukhangela ukuphangwa komongameli naxa umongameli engowamaqela abo, lo gama oomongameli kufuneka bawahlonele amagunya equmrhu kwanaxa beqhubana namagumbi okuchasa.

Ukucaca kwengxelo nokuphendula

Ii-checks nolungelelwano olunempumelelo lufuna ukuba kubekho ubungqina obucacileyo kumsebenzi karhulumente ukuze abemi namanye amasebe bakwazi ukuqwalasela oko kwenziwa ngamagosa. Inkululeko yemithetho yolwazi, iimfuno zeentlanganiso ezivulekileyo, imithetho yokutyhilwa kwemali, kunye namanye amanyathelo okubonisa imbonakalo aqinisekise ukuba amele aphendule.

Xa urhulumente esebenza emfihlekweni, kunzima ukusebenzisa uvavanyo kuba amanye amasebe kunye nokungabikho kolwazi lukawonke-wonke kufuneka kuhlolwe ukuba amagosa asebenza ngokufanelekileyo kusini na. Ukubonisa ngaphaya komnye uvavanyo kusebenza njengesiseko somnye uvavanyo kumandla.

Iinkokhelo ezizimeleyo

Amaziko azimeleyo awahlukeneyo axhasa iingqikelelo kunye nolungelelwano ngokunika ulwazi, ubuchule, kunye nolawulo. Ezi ziquka abahloli jikelele, i-Ofisi yokuphendula kaRhulumente, i-Ofisi yoHlahlo loLawulo lweMpahla-mali yeBhunga, kunye namasebe azimeleyo azimeleyo azimeleyo. Ngoxa la malungiselelo eyinxalenye karhulumente, ukuzimela kwawo ekulawuleni okuthe ngqo kwezobupolitika kuwavumela ukuba asebenze imisebenzi yokuhlola.

Nangona ijelo leendaba lingelolungiselelo likarhulumente, likwanendima ebalulekileyo ekuhloleni igunya likarhulumente ngokuphanda nangokunikela ingxelo ngezenzo ezisemthethweni.

Khangela phambili: Umlinganiselo womgaqo-siseko ogciniweyo

Inkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela ijongene nocelomngeni oluqhubekayo kwinkulungwane yama-21. Utshintsho lobugcisa, uqhagamshelwano lwehlabathi, ukhuphiswano oludityanisiweyo, kunye nezisongelo ezidityanisiweyo kukhuseleko lwesizwe zonke zivavanya umgaqo-siseko omiselwe ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini ezidlulileyo. Kodwa imigaqo esisiseko ephantsi kovavanyo kunye nolungelelwaniso kufuneka , ukuze kungabikho mntu umele agwebe kwimeko yakhe, kwaye loo rhulumente makabe noxanduva kubantu.

Ukugcina ii-checks nolungelelwano olusebenzayo kufuna ukuphaphanyiswa kubo bonke abathathi-nxaxheba kwinkqubo yomgaqo-siseko. Amagosa kufuneka ahlonele imida yequmrhu nezithethe ezisemthethweni naxa ekwenza oko kulinganisela amandla abo okufikelela kwiinjongo zenkqubo. Abahlali kufuneka bahlale benolwazi, babe nenxaxheba kwiinkqubo zedemokhrasi, baze bagcine amagosa ebeke ityala. Yaye bonke kufuneka bakhumbule ukuba injongo yokuhlola nokulinganisela akuyokwenza urhulumente ubuchule okanye ukuqinisekisa ukuba nawuphi na umthetho othile othandayo uyaphumelela, kodwa ukukhusela inkululeko ngokuthintela ukusetyenziswa kwamandla.

Abasebenzi baqonda ukuba indalo yomntu yenza amandla abe yingozi kwaye kwanamagosa azimiseleyo anokulisebenzisa kakubi igunya ukuba akanyanzelwa. Bayila inkqubo efuna ukuba amagosa aqhubekele phambili ajonge izilangazelelo zawo kwaye asebenzise loo sukelo ukukhangela amabhongo ngelivumba. Le mbono yokwenyaniso yendalo yomntu, idityaniswe nenkqubo yobuchule yokulawula ukulungiselela ukutsalela nokumisela amandla, ivumele urhulumente wezomgaqo-siseko waseMerika ukuba anyamezele kwiinguquko ezinzulu kunye nocelomngeni.

Njengabemi, ukuqonda indlela umsebenzi ohlolayo nolungelelanisa ngayo usinika amandla okuba nenxaxheba ngokunempumelelo kulawulo lwedemokhrasi. Singaqonda xa amagosa egqitha igunya lawo, exhasa uvavanyo lweziko loluntu kwigunya, kwaye esebenzisa izixhobo zethu zezentlalo-ntle yesizwe, ukukhuthaza, ukunikela intetho yesidlangalala, ukubeka intetho kawonke-wonke ngokulungelelanisa komGaqo-siseko. Inkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela ekugqibeleni ixhomekeke kumntu onolwazi nomiselwe ukuba abemi abakulungele ukukhusela imigaqo-siseko kwanaxa besenza oko kungqubana nokhetho olufutshane lwezobupolitika.

Abo banomdla wokufunda okungakumbi ngomGaqo-siseko kunye novavanyo kunye nolungelelwano, oovimba bobuzwe banikezela ukufikelela ekusekeni amaxwebhu kunye nezibonelelo zemfundo. ichaza isakhiwo senkundla kunye neenkqubo. Aba mithombo banceda abemi bakhona baqonde kwaye babandakanyeke kwinkqubo yomgaqo-siseko ekhusela amalungelo abo nemisebenzi yezemithetho. [[FLT:]]

Inkcubeko yenkqubo yomgaqo-siseko waseMerika ixhomekeke ekuthinteleni ungquzulwano phakathi kwamasebe kodwa ekulandeleni loo ngquzulwano ngeendlela ezikhusela inkululeko nezikhuthaza ukuphendulelwa komsebenzi. Ngokuqonda indlela abahlali abanokubuxabisa ngayo ubulumko boyilo lomgaqo-siseko, baze bafeze indima yabo ebalulekileyo ekulondolozeni urhulumente womgaqo-siseko. Le nkqubo ifuna ingqalelo eqhubekayo nokhuseleko, kodwa iye yangqinelana ngokuphawulekayo ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini, iqhelanisa nocelomngeni olutsha ngoxa ilondoloza ukuzinikela kwayo okungundoqo ekubekeni umda, urhulumente obekek ’ ityala phantsi komthetho.