Ukuqonda indlela imithetho echazwa ngayo kwaye enyanzeliswa ngayo kwiimeko ezahlukeneyo kubaluleke kakhulu kubafundi, abafundisi, kunye noogqirha abasemthethweni abahamba behamba kwihlabathi elidityanisiweyo. Iinkqubo zomthetho azikho zodwa; zibunjwa ziindlela ezicacileyo zembali, izithethe, kunye neenkqubo zezobupolitika. Eli nqaku linikela uhlolo olubanzi lwemimiselo engokwasemthethweni ```umthetho oqhelekileyo', umthetho wesizwe, umthetho wonqulo, kunye nomthetho wesithethe, kwaye lihlolisisa indlela inkqubo nganye efikelela ngayo ekutolikeni nasekunyanzelweni kwemithetho esemthethweni. Ngokuthelekisa ezi ndlela, abafundi baya kufumana ukuqonda kwizinto ezithi zivele xa imida enqumla imida, iindlela eziqinisekisa ukumanyana, kunye nobunzima obuguqula inkqubo yolawulo lwanamhlanje.

Ukuchaza Izityholo Nokubaluleka Kwazo

Ligunya elisemthethweni lokwenza izigqibo zomthetho nokunyanzelisa imigwebo kwilizwe elichaziweyo, imibandela ephantsi, okanye imigaqo yabantu. Imida yephondo ingaba yindawo ethile (umz., ilizwe, iphondo, okanye iphondo), esekelwe kuhlobo lwetyala elisemthethweni (umz., isigebengu esichasene nomthetho), okanye echazwa ligunya lenkundla elikwizigwebo (umz., ingcamango isekelwe kwisiseko ngenxa yokuba le ngxaki i-"ingumbaxa-mvume okanye isigebe-mthetho) ngenxa yokuba i-ityala okanye isigebe-gebenga sisenokuchatshazelwa ngokwahlukileyo kuxhomekeke ekuzweni lityala. Umzekelo, ukutyhola inkundla yolwaphulo-mthetho eya kuziswa eUnited States iya kugxininisa okona, ngoxa kuseUnited States, ingcwangubo obuninzi, ukuchasa, kanti kumazwe oMngcungxhuzulwayo, okanye ukutshintsha kwezo oluqhelekileyo. Le ngcamango yobulungisa iyahluka kwiimeko zomthetho.

Iinkqubo Ezine Zomthetho Ezibalaseleyo

Ngoxa amazwe amaninzi exuba iinkalo zezithethe ezininzi, iinkqubo ezine eziphambili zomthetho zilawula ummandla wehlabathi: umthetho oqhelekileyo, umthetho wamakhaya, umthetho wonqulo, nezithethe. Inkqubo nganye isekelwe kwimithombo eyahlukileyo yegunya, iindlela zokucacisa, nezenzo zokunyanzelisa.

Umthetho Oqhelekileyo

Umthetho oqhelekileyo osungulwe eNgilani yamaxesha aphakathi kwaye ngoku ukho eUnited States, eUnited Kingdom, eKhanada, naseOstreliya, kunye namanye amazwe amaninzi awayekhe ayinxalenye yoBukhosi baseBritane. Uphawu lomthetho oqhelekileyo yimfundiso ye stare decis[ (isiLatin sokuma ngokwezigqibo zesigqibo”). Phantsi kwalo mgaqo, iinkundla zinyanzelekile ukulandela ukuqiqa okumiswe kwimimiselo yangaphambili yetyala. [=$10] xa kulawula imiba efanayo. Oku kunika abagwebi indima enamandla kumthetho wokulungisa, njengoko ukuchaza kwabo kuba ligunya kwiinkundla ezisezantsi.

Kumagunya aqhelekileyo omthetho, ukutolikwa kwemithetho kusoloko kubandakanya ukuhlalutya iinjongo zomthetho ngentsingiselo ecacileyo yomthetho, umthetho wobundlobongela, okanye indlela yokulawula. Abagwebi bakwaxhomekeke kuluhlu lwemithetho yolwakhiwo, njenge ejustem genemistris[ (yohlobo olunye) [neenjongo efanayo) kunye [[FLT: 2] nomthetho oye wamkela amalungelo e-mgaqo-mzekelo ngaphandle kolawulo olucacileyo. Intelekiso yento enye ikhutshwa ngaphandle komthetho we-injini, kunye nee-e-e-endlel, kunye nee--ntengxelo zezomthetho zivumela ukuqhelanisa iinjongo ezintsha zezezezezentlalo-luntluvo ngaphandle kolawulo olucacileyo.

Umzekelo: Kwityala leNkundla ePhakamileyo ye-U.S. Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954), iNkundla yabhukuqa imfundiso “engafaniyo kodwa elinganayo” ngokutolika iCotetic Protection Claus ngokulula imilinganiselo yesocite, ebonisa indlela umthetho owaziwayo ovela ngayo ngokucaciswa kwejaji.

Umthetho Wamakhaya

Umthetho wamakhaya, owaziwa ngokuba yi Romano-Jamani, wasungulwa kwilizwekazi leYurophu kwaye udityaniswe kwimithetho ecwangcisiweyo. Amazwe anjengeFransi, iJamani, iSpeyin, iSpeyin, kunye nenkoliso ye-Latin America asebenza phantsi kwemigaqo-mthetho yamakhaya. Umthombo oyintloko womthetho ngumthetho ```imithetho ebhaliweyo' ```ii-rather' kunemimiselo yomthetho yasekuhlaleni. Abagwebi kwiinkqubo zomthetho wamakhaya bajongwa njengabafaki-mthetho, hayi abadali. Indima yabo kukufumana izibakala nokusebenzisa imimiselo yemithetho yamakhaya; imigwebo yangaphambili ingumthetho ebhaliweyo kodwa ayibophi imiqathango.

Ukutolikwa komthetho wasekuhlaleni kugxininisa kakhulu kumbhalo wekhowudi. Abalawuli basebenzisa ubuchule obufana nokutolikwa komgaqo-ntetho, utoliko olusengqiqweni, kunye nokuchazwa kweemeko (okusekelwe kwinjongo) ukuze kufunyanwe injongo yendlu yowiso-mthetho. Ngenxa yokuba imigaqo yemithetho isoloko ihlaziywa, akukho kuxhomekeka kumthetho oqokeleliweyo. Kodwa, xa kusetyenziswa, izigqibo zeenkundla eziphezulu qha, qha zinika ingcebiso elinamandla kwaye zisebenzisa iinqobo zenkundla ezisezantsi, nto leyo ekhokelela ekudibaniseni okungalinganiyo nomthetho oqhelekileyo. Imithetho yemithetho yamakhaya ithuthwa ngokunjalo ikhutshwa ngaphandle kwenkundla kunye nemicimbi yolawulo, kodwa ukugxininiswa komthetho obhaliweyo kunokwenza inkqubo ecacileyo nengenabuchule.

Umzekelo: Imithetho yabemi yaseFrentshi (uCompail) iphembelele iinkqubo ezininzi zomthetho ehlabathini lonke. Ilungiselelo layo kwimpahla, izivumelwano, kunye netort litolikwa ngelens yesakhiwo sekhowudi jikelele, ngokubhekiselele kwimimiselo yesibini yenkundla yangaphambili.

Umthetho Wonqulo

Iinkqubo zonqulo zifumana igunya kwimibhalo engcwele kunye nemiyalelo kaThixo. Owona mzekelo uxhaphakileyo ngumthetho we-Islam (u-Sharia), isiseko seenkqubo zomthetho kumazwe afana ne Saudi Arabia, Iran, ne Sudan, kwaye ephembelela umthetho kumazwe amaninzi amaSilamsi-majority. I-Sharia isuka kwimithombo emine engundoqo: i-Quran, i-Sunnahna (isiseko somProfethizelicium), i-Conformation (jma), kunye nokuqiqaysa ulukiso (ishmas).

Ukutolikwa komthetho wonqulo kwenziwa ngabaphengululi abaqeqeshiweyo (abaqeqeshiweyo okanye abagwebi) ababandakanyeka kwi-ijtihad (ukuqiqa okungaxhomekekanga) ukuze basebenzise imigaqo yonqulo engaphelelwa lixesha kwimibandela yanamhlanje. Ngokomzekelo, imibuzo yanamhlanje emalunga nokunikela ngamalungu okanye ukufihla imiyalelo iqwalaselwa ngokuhlolisisa imithetho esisiseko yendlela yokuziphatha. Ukunyanzelisa kubandakanya iinkundla zonqulo okanye amagumbi akhethekileyo kwimiqathango yezolawulo lwezonqulo, kwaye izigwebo ezinokuquka isohlwayo, intele, okanye intethi. Ukwahlukana phakathi konqulo nonqulo kusoloko kuthe shwanka, njengoko umthetho wonqulo ulawula ihambo yobuqu, unqulo, kunye nokuziphatha.

Ngokufanayo, umthetho wamaYuda (uHalakha) ulawula iinkalo ezininzi zobomi kumaYuda aqwalaselayo yaye usetyenziswa kwiinkundla zooorabhi kwimicimbi enjengeyomtshato noqhawulo - mtshato. Umthetho weCawa yamaKatolika ulawula imicimbi yangaphakathi yeCawa yaye unyanzeliswa ngeenkundla zecawa. Kwimigaqo edityanisiweyo yezomthetho, njengaleyo yaseIndiya okanye eNigeria, imithetho yonqulo isebenza ngokunxulumene nemigaqo yezopolitiko neyolwaphulo-mthetho.

[[UMTLL: 0] Ikhonkco lobuxhakaxhaka: I IEncclopædia Britannica ungeno olukwi Sharia inika ushwankathelo olunegunya lwemvelaphi nenkcazelo.

Umthetho Oqhelekileyo

Umthetho oqhelekileyo uquka imithetho nezenzo ezingabhalwanga eziye zavela kwingingqi. Ufumaneka kuluntu lomthonyama eAfrika, e-Asia, kwiziqithi zePasifiki, naphakathi kwezizwe zokuqala kumazwe aseMerika. Umthetho wesithethe ulawula umhlaba, ulwalamano lwentsapho, ulwamkelo, kunye nolawulo lwasekuhlaleni. Ngokuqhelekileyo luthambileyo kwaye lungqalekile, lwahluka naphakathi kweedolophana ezingomakhelwane.

Ukutolikwa komthetho wesithethe kuxhomekeke kwinkumbulo nakwigunya lenkokeli yabadala okanye iinkokeli zesithethe, ezigqiba iimpikiswano ezisekelwe kwizithethe ezifanelekileyo nakwimbali yomlomo. Ezi zigqibo zisoloko zihlaziya kunokuba zikhutshwe, zijolise ekubuyiseni imvisiswano phakathi kwebutho labantu. Ingxengxezo ivela ngoxinzelelo lwezentlalo, i-mediadition, kunye nokuvunywa kwegunya lenkokeli. Kumazwe amaninzi, umthetho wesithethe uqwalaselwa ngokusesikweni ngurhulumente, usebenza njengenkqubo efanayo ngaphantsi kobuninzi obusemthethweni. Umzekelo, eMzantsi Afrika, umGaqo-siseko uyavuma ukuba umthetho wesithethe ungumthombo ozimeleyo, uphantsi komthetho, olawulwa nguBhili welungelo lokuLungelo.

Umatshini onyanzelwayo ongaphaya kwenkqubo

Ukunyanzeliswa yingalo esebenzisekayo yokutolika okungokwasemthethweni. Nokuba umthetho ubhalwe ngokucacileyo okanye utolikwa kangakanani, awusebenzi ngaphandle kwendlela ezinokuthenjwa zokuqinisekisa ukuba ukho. Iindlela eziqhelekileyo ziquka:

  • [[FLT: 0] Ukunyanzelisa ukunyanzelisa: Iinkundla zikhupha isigwebo, imiyalelo, nezivakalisi, ezixhaswa ngamandla karhulumente okukhupha ifrey, ukuthatha impahla, okanye ukuvalela abophula umthetho.
  • [[NKT: 0] Ukunyanzelisa ulawulo: amasebe alawulayo (umz., i-Agency yoKhuselo lweNkathi ePhakamileyo e-U.S., i-Mali yeQumrhu leNdlela yeNkcubeko e-U.K.) izalisekisa kwaye inyanzelise imithetho ekhethekileyo ngokuvavanya, izigwebo, kunye nokulungisa iintwala.
  • Ukubekwa kwetyala nokubekwa ityala: amasebe omthetho ahlola ulwaphulo-mthetho, aqokelele ubungqina, abhekise amatyala kubatshutshisi, agqiba ukuba azise na izityholo.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Ukunyanzeliswa komthetho okusekelwe kwikomfa: kwiinkqubo zesiko, ukugcinwa komthetho kuxhomekeke kuxinzelelo lweqela, ulawulo, kunye nesithethe soxolelwaniso kunokuba nezixhobo eziqhelekileyo zikarhulumente.

Ukwahluka komthetho kungayichaphazela ngokuphawulekayo imiphumo. Ijaji elizimeleyo elikwilizwe eliqhelekileyo linokuqinisekisa ngamandla ukuba ngabagqwesi-mthetho abalawulayo bangabaqhatha, ngoxa umthetho wasekuhlaleni osebenza ngokungqongqo nowokutshutshisa unokwenza intabalala enkulu yamatyala. Iinkqubo zomthetho wonqulo zidla ngokudibanisa imigaqo esesikweni neyomthetho, njengoko kubonakala kwiinkundla zaseSharia apho abagwebi benza umsebenzi wokwaphula umthetho nabagcini bemilinganiselo yokuziphatha.

Uhlalutyo lwentelekelelo: Iintlobo zokutolika

Indlela imithetho etolikwa ngayo ingabekwa kwimigca emininzi edityaniswe nemigca enqamlezileyo: umbhalo ochasene nobubanzi, ongqongqo nowomeleleyo, nowokukhawulezileyo othe ngqo nochasene nembali. Iinkqubo zomthetho oqhelekileyo zidla ngokuqwalasela phakathi kombhalo wombhalo (ukujonga kwintsingiselo ecacileyo yombhalo we-statory) kunye ne purposition (ukujonga injongo ebanzi). E-United States, ingxoxo phakathi kobukho bokuqala kunye nokuphila komgaqo-siseko ingqina lobunzima. Iinkqubo zomthetho wamakhaya, ngokwahlukileyo, ngokwesithethe, zixhomekeke kakhulu kumbhalo wekhowudi, kodwa abagwebi bexesha elinye baqwalasela injongo kunye neziphumo ezikhoyo.

Utoliko lomthetho lufuna ukulungelelaniswa kwemibhalo yamandulo nemfuneko yokuthetha ngeemeko zale mihla. Ngokomzekelo, umthetho wamaSilamsi uvumela abaphengululi abafanelekayo ukuba bavelise imithetho emitsha kwimibandela engachatshazelwanga ngqo kwiQuran okanye Sunnah. Ukutolikwa komthetho okuqhelekileyo kusekelwe kumbandela othile wentlalo nemilinganiselo yasekuhlaleni, nto leyo ebangela ukuba ingaqondakali kodwa isoloko ithandwa ngabantu abalawulayo.

[[UMTLL: 0] Ikhonkco lemfundo: I-[FT]] i-“ukusasaza uMthetho” umnqongo wemodyuli ukusuka kwi Max Planck Institute unika uluvo lwemfundo kutoliko lomthetho oluthelekisayo.

Iingxaki Kwihlabathi Elizaliswe Yihlabathi

Ubuninzi obusemthethweni ."ukuhlaziywa kweenkqubo ezininzi zomthetho kummandla omnye ."iveza amathuba kunye nobunzima. Kumazwe afana no-Indiya, imithetho yobuqu esekelwe kunqulo (i-Hudu, amaSilamsi, ubuKristu) isebenza kunye nemithetho yesohlwayo yehlabathi kunye nenkqubo yamakhaya. Oku kunokukhokelela kwiimfazwe ezilawulayo, ukuthenga, kunye neengxoxo zokulingana kwamadoda namabhinqa xa umthetho wobuqu usuka kwimithetho emiselwe yimithetho.

Ukudityaniswa kwehlabathi kuyaluqinisa olu celomngeni. Ukuthengiselwana kwemida, ulwaphulo-mthetho lwekhompyutha, kunye nezithethe zamalungelo abantu zamazwe ngamazwe zifuna ukuba iinkundla zichaze imithetho yamazwe angaphandle, zigqibe ixesha lokuyisebenzisa, kunye nokulungelelanisa ukugcinwa kwemithetho enqamleza imida. Ingcamango ye- ubudlelane [ [iiimvume nentlonelo phakathi kwamazwe] ikhokela izigqibo ezininzi ezinjalo, kodwa uxanduva luvela xa imithetho yesizwe ingqubana nezivumelwano zezizwe. Umzekelo, iinkundla zaseYurophu zisenokungavumi ukunyanzelela ukunyanzelisa i-U.S. Imigwebo equka iziphumo zemali, ezithathwa njengemiqatha phantsi kwezithethe zamakhaya.

Olunye ucelomngeni olungundoqo luyi- imigaqo esesikweni . Nokuba kumthetho oqhelekileyo owenzelwe ukuhlaziywa okubiza imali eninzi okanye kukweyona nkqubo yesithethe efudusiweyo eshenxisiweyo ziinkundla zikarhulumente, amaqela acelwe phantsi adla ngokuzama ukuqhuba inkqubo esemthethweni. Uncedo lwasemthethweni, isigqibo solunye uphicotho-mpikiswano, kunye nokuqwalaselwa kweenkundla zomthonyamamli ziincamango ezinezo zonyango, kodwa ezohlukeneyo ziyaqhubekeka.

Imilinganiselo Yanamhlanje: Intengiso Nengcungcu

Iinkqubo zomthetho azisebenzi ngokuzikhetha. Ngokuqhubekayo, imigaqo-siseko yomthetho yasekuhlaleni iboleka omnye komnye. Amazwe amaninzi ngoku achaza izigqibo eziphezulu zenkundla njengegunya elinamandla, ngoxa izindlu zowiso-mthetho eziqhelekileyo zisoloko zidibanisa iindawo zomthetho (umz., i-Uniform Commercial Code in the U.S.). I-European Union ngumzekelo obalaseleyo wokudityaniswa kwemiqathango, ukudibanisa amalungu omthetho wasekuhlaleni nowamanyeneyo kwimithetho nezigqibo zenkundla.

Iinkqubo zomthetho wonqulo nazo ziyasebenzisana nemithetho yehlabathi. Amanye amazwe anempembelelo eSharia aye atshintsha imigaqo yentsapho ukuze ihambelane nemilinganiselo yamalungelo abantu yehlabathi lonke, ngoxa amanye egcina iinkcazelo ezingqongqo. Umthetho oqhelekileyo udityaniswa kwiinkqubo ezisemthethweni ezifana nenkqubo ze- “Community Sed Resolutions". Iinkqubo ze-university Sami zibandakanya izithethe zomthonyama kwinkqubo yentolongo.

Ikhonkco leNxulumano: IBhanki yehlabathi Inika ugcino-lwazi ngendlela amazwe ahlukeneyo azalisekisa ngayo kwaye anyanzelisa ngayo imithetho, ebalaselisa amandla nobuthathaka kumacala onke.

Ucelomngeni Lwabafundisi Nabafundi

Kubafundisi-mthetho nembali, ukuqonda ukwahluka kwenkcazelo engokwasemthethweni nokunyanzeliswa komthetho kubalulekile kubafundi ukuba bacinge ngokunzulu ngobulungisa, igunya, kunye nokutshintsha kwemeko. Uhlalutyo olunxulumeneyo lunceda abafundi babone umthetho ungeyonkqubo emileyo kodwa njengenkqubo enamandla ephenjelelwa yinkcubeko, amandla, kunye neengcamango. Xa befunda iziganeko zembali `ezinjengokwanda kwenkqubo engokwasemthethweni okanye ukuphuhliswa kwamalungelo abantu ehlabathi lonke, kungasiqonda kakuhle isizathu sokuba umbhalo omnye womthetho uvelise iziphumo ezahlukeneyo ngokwemeko.

Iinkcazelo ezingundoqo zokufundisa ziquka:

  • Ukubaluleka komongo xa kuhlalutywa imithombo esisiseko yomthetho: umthetho ovela kwilizwe lomthetho karhulumente kufuneka ufundwe ucinga ngesiseko sawo sekhowudi, ngoxa isigqibo somthetho esiqhelekileyo sifuna ingqalelo kumxokelelwano wesithethe.
  • Indima yabadlali abasemthethweni: abagwebi, abamisi - mthetho, abaphengululi bonqulo nabadala bebutho labantu, ngamnye wabo umisela umthetho ngokukhetha kwakhe ukucacisa.
  • Uxinezeleko oluqhubekayo phakathi kokuqiniseka nokubhetyebhetye: Iinkqubo ezisetyenziswayo zibangela ukuba kubonwe kwangaphambili, ngoxa umthetho oqhelekileyo uvumela ukuba kubekho utshintsho; umthetho wonqulo unikela ukhokelo lwemilinganiselo yokuziphatha, ngoxa umthetho wesithethe ulondoloza imvisiswano engokwentlalo.

Isiphelo

Indlela etolikwa ngayo kwaye inyanzeliswe kwimithetho eyahlukeneyo ngumbuzo okwisiseko somthetho wokuthelekisa. Oku kuhlola umthetho oqhelekileyo, umthetho wamakhaya, umthetho wonqulo, kunye nomthetho wesithethe kutyhila ukuba akukho “indlela enye elungileyo” yokuqonda imithetho esemthethweni. Endaweni yoko, inkqubo nganye ibonisa indlela eyahlukileyo yokuphatha igunya, ingqiqo, kunye noluntu. Njengoko ihlabathi lisiba nentsebenziswano, iingcali zomthetho nabemi ngokufanayo kufuneka bahlakulele ubuchule bokulawula ezi ngxaki, ukuhlonela imvelaphi yabo, nokufunda kwabo kwimisebenzi yabo. Kuba abaqeqeqeshi nabafundi, olu lwazi lunika uxabiso olunzulu ngendlela intlalo-ntle ezizilawula ngayo nendlela okusesikweni okuqhubekeka ngayo kusetyenziswa ngayo kumthetho.