Ulwalamano Phakathi koRhulumente noMgaqo-siseko woManyano

Umgaqo-siseko waseMelika udla ngokuqondwa njengeqela lemigangatho eliphezulu, eliphezulu apho umGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. umi wedwa njengomkhuseli wenkululeko yabemi. Noko ke, ukuqhelisela inkqubo kunamandla amakhulu. UmGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. unika umgangatho wamalungelo omntu ngamnye ngezantsi apho kungekho rhulumente anokuwabeka khona amagumbi ngaphezulu komgangatho. Ukuqonda indlela umgaqo-siseko olungelelanisa ngayo inkululeko yasekuhlaleni kuyimfuneko ekuqondeni umlinganiselo opheleleyo wamalungelo axhamkelwe ngamaMelika. La maxwebhu asebenza njengentsika ezinxulumene nokhuseleko, ngokufuthi anyusa inkululeko ngaphaya koko iinkundla zesizwe ezikuqapheleyo.

Olu lwakhiwo luxineneyo lwamalungelo aluzikho ngengozi yembali kodwa luyintsebenziswano yamagunya asemthethweni aseMelika. Abaseki baqaphela ukuba amaphondo aya kuba ziiklasi zedemokhrasi, azame iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokulawula kunye nokukhusela amalungelo. Namhlanje, olo vavanyo luvelise ukhuselo oluninzi olunomGaqo-siseko olwahluka-hlukeneyo ngokwemeko-bume, ludala inkqubo entsonkothileyo kodwa enamandla yokukhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye.

Indima yomGaqo-siseko kaRhulumente kuManyano lwaseMelika

Umgaqo-siseko wesizwe usebenza njengomthetho ophakamileyo kulawulo lwawo, usebenza ecaleni komGaqo-siseko wesizwe. Ngoxa umGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. umisela isakhiwo sikarhulumente wesizwe kwaye umisela amalungelo asisiseko, umgaqo-siseko uthetha ngoluhlu olubanzi lwemibandela kwaye unganikela ukhuseleko olugqithisileyo. Le nkqubo idibeneyo ivumela amazwe abonise amaxabiso akhethekileyo, imbali, nezinto eziphambili zabemi bawo ngoxa eqhubeka enamathele kumgangatho ophantsi omiselwe ngumthetho wesizwe.

Umahluko ongundoqo ngowokuba umgaqo-siseko karhulumente usoloko ukhona ixesha elide kwaye unenkcukacha ezininzi kunoxwebhu lwamazwe. Bathetha ngeengingqi ezithile zenkqubo, ezifana nenkxaso-mali yemfundo, ukhuseleko lwemeko-bume, kunye nolawulo lwasekuhlaleni, ukuba umGaqo-siseko wase-U.

Omnye umsebenzi obalulekileyo womgaqo-siseko karhulumente yindima yabo ekuthinteleni igunya likarhulumente. Kanye njengokuba iBhili yamaLungelo ithintela urhulumente worhulumente, ityala lamalungelo limisela imilinganiselo enokwenziwa ziindlu zowiso-mthetho zorhulumente kunye namasebe. Olu khuselo lomgangatho karhulumente lungabaluleka ngakumbi xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. inciphisa ukuchazwa kwamalungelo karhulumente, njengokuba iinkundla zikarhulumente zisenokunyanzelela ukukhuselwa okubanzi phantsi komgaqo-siseko sazo.

Imeko yembali: Ukusuka Kwizicangca Zoburhamanesi Ukuya KwimiGaqo-siseko Yanamhlanje

Isithethe somgaqo-siseko obhaliweyo eMelika uqala ngaphambi komGaqo-siseko wesizwe. Amaxwebhu aquka umgaqo-siseko wobuRhoma kunye nomgaqo-siseko karhulumente wangaphambili wamisela umgaqo wokuba igunya likarhulumente limele limiswe ngoxwebhu olubhaliweyo olubala amalungelo. Xa iSindululo senkululeko satyikitywa ngowe-1776, amagunya amatsha azimeleyo akhawuleza ashukumiseka ukuze enze umgaqo-siseko wawo. La maxwebhu ayequka izikhuseli zenkululeko yokuthetha, yokushicilela, indibano, kunye nonqulo oluza kufakwa kwiBhili-a amalungelo oMbuso.

UMgaqo-siseko waseMassachusetts wowe-1780, obhaliswe ngokuyintloko nguJohn Adams, ngomnye wemiGaqo-siseko emidala ebhaliweyo ehlabathini. Uquka isibhengezo samalungelo abantu esingakhuseli nje inkululeko yasekuhlaleni kuphela kodwa sikwamisela nesiseko sokwahlula amagunya. Eminye imiqathango yephondo yamandulo, njengaleyo yaseVirginia nasePennsylvania, ngokufanayo yafaka ukhuseleko oluqinileyo olwaphembelela ukuqululwa komGaqo-siseko we-U.S.

Kuyo yonke inkulungwane ye-19 neye-20, umgaqo-siseko wesizwe waguquka ukuze ucombulule imingeni emitsha. Ulungiso-mthetho wemithetho-siseko ye-console kuMzantsi, umzekelo, waseka iinkqubo zemfundo kawonke-wonke kwaye walela ucalucalulo lobuhlanga ngokwemeko ezithile. Iinkqubo zokulungisa inkqubela-phambili zongezelelwa kolungiselelo lokuqalisa nokumiswa kwemithetho ye-arhente, ivumela abemi ukuba bamisele imithetho ngqo. Inkulungwane yama-20 yabona ulwandiso oluthelekelelo lwamalungelo ngomgaqo-siseko ngokulungisa amalungelo oluntu, ukukhusela imekobume, kunye nokuzifunela imicimbi yecala.

Impembelelo yomGaqo-siseko woManyano kumaxwebhu eSizwe

UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S., ingakumbi iBhili yamaLungelo eyagunyaziswa ngo-1791, yamisela umgangatho apho uninzi lwamazwe ludibanisa umgaqo-siseko walo. Amazwe asoloko amkela ulwimi olubonisa ukukhuselwa koMphengululo wokuqala wolwimi olusetyenziswayo ekuthetheni nakunqulo, izithintelo zeSihlanu sokuHlaziywa kophando olungekho ngqiqweni, kunye nenkqubo efanelekileyo yeSigqibo seFind Remplist Remplifice. Noko ke, oku kuboleka kwakungekokuko ukukhuphela nje nokugcina ikopi.

IsiHlalisi se-14, esagunyaziswa ngo-1868, saguqula ngokusisiseko ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente namalungelo orhulumente ngokusebenzisa ukhuseleko lweBhili yamaLungelo kumazwe ngemfundiso yokufakwa. Kodwa nasemva kokungeniswa, umgaqo-siseko karhulumente wahlala ufanelekile kuba wawunokunikezela ngamalungelo angaphaya kobuncinane borhulumente. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. isoloko ikholelwa ukuba amaphondo anganikela ukhuseleko olukhulu phantsi komgaqo-siseko wawo kunalowo ufunekayo nguMgaqo-siseko wesizwe, lo gama nje ukhuseleko lungangqubaniselwano nomthetho worhulumente.

Imizekelo Yokukhuselwa Kwabantu Abakhuliswe Ngapha Nangapha Kwamazwe

Imizekelo emininzi ibonisa indlela umgaqo-siseko worhulumente ogqitha ngayo imilinganiselo karhulumente:

  • Amalungelo e-Privikia: umGaqo-siseko waseKhalifoniya uqinisekisa ngokucacileyo ilungelo lokuzimela wedwa, ukhuseleko olungafunyanwanga kumbhalo womGaqo-siseko wase-U. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseKhalifoniya ilitolike eli lungiselelo lokugquma yonke into ukusuka kwiingxelo zezamayeza ukuya kugcino-lwazi, inika ukhuseleko olubanzi kuneenkundla zikarhulumente eziluvonele phantsi koMphengululo wesine okanye i-pembubra yeBhili yamaLungelo.
  • AmaLungelo angokwesithethe: Umgaqo-siseko wesizwe oninzi, kuquka lowo waseNew York, Pennsylvania, Montana, kunye nowaseHawaii, uquka amalungiselelo okuqinisekisa imekobume ecocekileyo nenempilo. La malungiselelo anika abemi amandla okuvavanya ungcoliso kunye nokuwohloka kwemekobume ngokuthe ngqo, ukuseka isiseko somgaqo-siseko sobume obungenanto ifana nayo.
  • [[FLT: 0] INgxowa-mali yoKhuthazo: Ngelixesha iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ingavumi ukuqaphela ilungelo lesizwe lemfundo, umgaqo-siseko wesizwe ngokulinganayo uqinisekisa imfundo kawonke-wonke. Amazwe amaninzi aye asebenzisa la malungiselelo kwiinkqubo eziphezulu ezigwebayo ezinokungabi nasizathu.
  • Ukhuseleko olupheleleyo: Eminye imiGaqo-siseko inikeza isiqinisekiso esibanzi esilinganayo sokhuseleko kunesomGaqo-siseko wezwe. Umzekelo, igalelo elilinganayo lokhuseleko lwaseNew York litolikiwe ukukhusela ucalucalulo olusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesini nakubufana nangaphambi kokuba ukhuseleko olulolo lubhalelwe phantsi komthetho wezwe.
  • Inkqubo yomthetho: UmGaqo-siseko unika abamangalelwa nelungelo lokuchophela ityala kwanamacala amancinane apho ilungelo lengingqi lingadibani. Ngokufanayo, umGaqo-siseko weWashington unikela ukhuseleko olwandisiweyo ekuphandeni okungenazintlawulo kwezinye iimeko.

Ingcaciso Yezogwebo: Indlela Iinkundla Zeenkundla Zelizwe Eziwaguqula Ngayo Amalungelo

Iinkundla zelizwe zidlala indima ebalulekileyo ekutolikeni komgaqo-siseko wesizwe nokumisa umlinganiselo wamalungelo aphantsi kwemithetho yazo. Xa inkundla yeli lizwe itolika umgaqo-siseko wayo, ingcaciso edla ngokugqibelela kwaye engahlolisiswa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U. Oku kuzimele kuvumela iinkundla zikarhulumente ukuba zivelise inkululeko yabemi, ngokufuthi zikhuphe izigqibo ezingqubanayo nenkqubo yesizwe.

Ingcamango "yolongamo loburhulumente" kumthetho wezomgaqo-siseko ithetha ukuba iinkundla zesizwe zingachaza ulwimi olufanayo okanye olufanayo lomgaqo-siseko ngokwahlukileyo kwiinkundla zesizwe. Umzekelo, inkundla yephondo ingathi icandelo layo elikhululekileyo lokuthetha likhusela ihambo ecacileyo enokuthi iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ayigubungelanga. Oku akuthethi ukuba igunya likarhulumente lilawulwa kodwa kukusetyenziswa kwamandla karhulumente azimeleyo.

Iinkundla zephondo zisoloko zibandakanyeka koko abaphengululi abasemthethweni bakubiza ngokuba "kukulawula okutsha kwezomthetho," umbutho owafumana inkqubela kwiminyaka yee-1970 xa iinkundla zikarhulumente zaqalisa ukuthembela ngokukhutheleyo kwimigaqo-siseko yazo ukwandisa ukhuseleko lwamalungelo. Le ndlela iye yaba nempembelelo ngokukhethekileyo kwiindawo ezifana nokuphengulula nokuqhwalela umthetho wetyala, apho iinkundla zeli lizwe maxa wambi ziye zazigatya ukuqiqa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-United States kwaye zamkela imilinganiselo engakumbi yokukhusela phantsi komgaqo-siseko wazo.

Uphando lophawu lwemeko yomhlaba

Amatyala aliqela abalulekileyo abonisa indlela ukutolikwa komgaqo - siseko wesizwe okunokuyandisa ngayo inkululeko yabemi ngaphezu kwemilinganiselo karhulumente:

Ku Abantu v. McCauley, iNkundla yaseNew York yezibheno yathi umgaqo-siseko wenkululeko yokuthetha ukhusela ilungelo lokubandakanyeka kwihambo echazayo ngendlela eyadlulayo kuMphetho wokuqala. Inkundla yaqiqa ngelithi ulwimi lomgaqo-siseko nembali yaseNew York yayifuna ukuncedwa, nangona iNkundla ePhakamileyo yayifikelele kwisigqibo esahlukileyo phantsi komthetho worhulumente.

Ityala elibandakanya iCalifornia v. Ciraolo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseKhalifoniya yagqiba kwelokuba umgaqo-siseko wesizwe wanika ukhuseleko olukhulu lwemfihlo kuneNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. Ityala lalibandakanya ukujongwa kwenqwelo-moya kwindlu yangasemva, yaye ngoxa inkundla yephondo yafumanisa ukuba akukho kwaphulwa, inkundla yephondo yathi intetho yecala ye-Califoni yakwalela ukuqwalaselwa okungenagunyazi.

Omnye umzekelo ophawulekayo ngu ' sitegol v. Hempele eNew Jersey, apho inkundla ephakamileyo yalapho isithi umGaqo-siseko waseNew Jersey ukhusela ubumfihlo benkunkuma eshiyelwe ukuqokelelwa, ukhaba indlela karhulumente evumele uphando olungenasiqinisekiso lomgqomo. Esi sigqibo sasebenzisa umgaqo-siseko ukuseka umgangatho ophezulu wokhuseleko lwasese kubemi baseNew Jersey.

La matyala abonisa ukuba ukuhlaziywa komgaqo - siseko welizwe kusisixhobo esinamandla sokuhambisela phambili inkululeko yasekuhlaleni, ingakumbi xa iinkundla zikarhulumente zisiya kwicala elingqongqo ngakumbi.

Imikhwa Yangoku Kumthetho woMgaqo-siseko weRhulumente

Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, umthetho wesigqeba uphinde wavuselelwa njengoko abaxhasi beli gunya bephethulela kwiinkundla zeli lizwe nakumanyathelo okukhusela amalungelo aphikisanayo okanye asengozini kumgangatho wesizwe. Oku kubonisa ulwamkelo olulungelelanisiweyo oluthi umgaqo-siseko wesizwe unike isiseko esinokuthenjwa sokukhusela amalungelo athile ngexesha lokhuseleko lorhulumente.

Ukuqalisa Kwamalungelo Okudlulisela Isigidimi

Urhulumente uliqela uye watshintsha umgaqo-siseko wawo wokwandisa ukufikelela kovota ngeendlela ezigqitha kwiimfuno zikarhulumente. Ukubhalisa okuzenzekelayo, ukubhalisa okungokosuku olunye, akukho kurhoxa kovota, kwaye amaxesha okuvota angaphambili onke avunywa ngokulungisa okanye umthetho omiselwe kwimigaqo-siseko karhulumente. Umzekelo, uvoti waseMichigan wavuma ukupheliswa komGaqo-siseko ngo-2018 okumisela ukuvota okuzenzekelayo, ukuvota okuthe ngqo, kunye neminye imiqathango yokufikelela. Unyuso-20182018 ka-2018 uLawulo-Phinda-mvume 4 lubuyiselwe amalungelo okuvota okuvota kwisigidi somthetho-rhola (ukusebenza okungasayinwa komgano).

Le misebenzi yomgangatho karhulumente ichasene nomthetho wequmrhu lesizwe wamalungelo okuvota. Ngoxa umGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. ushiya ulawulo lonyulo oluninzi kumazwe, imimiselo yorhulumente inikela isiseko somthetho apho abemi banokufaka khona ukhuseleko lokuvota olungenakuluphelisa lula ngomthetho oqhelekileyo.

Ukukhuselwa kwamalungelo okuvelisa kwakhona

Emva kwesigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. umgaqo-siseko wezomthetho waba yindawo yokuqala yokulwa namalungelo okuzala. Amaphondo amabhinqa akhusele iMichigan, iOhio, iVermont, neKansas aphakathi kolawulo apho uvotelwano luye lwaqinisekisa inkululeko yokuzala.

Iinkundla zeli lizwe zikwatolike amalungiselelo akhoyo enkqubo yomgaqo-siseko ukukhusela amalungelo okuzala. Ngokomzekelo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseMontana, ikholelwa ukuba umgaqo-siseko wesizwe uzimele kunye nezigwebo ezifanayo zokukhusela ilungelo lokuqhomfa. Ngokufanayo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseMzantsi Carolina yawubethelela umthetho wokuqhomfa ongqongqo phantsi kwelungelo lomgaqo-siseko wesizwe lokuba yimfihlo, nangona kamva inkundla yatshintsha ubunjwa bayo yaza yaxhasa ummiselo owahlukileyo.

Le ndlela yesizwe ithetha ukuba ilungelo lokuqhomfa ngoku lixhomekeke kakhulu apho umntu ahlala khona kunye nolwimi olukhethekileyo lomgaqo-siseko welo lizwe. Kuyimbonakaliso ecacileyo yendlela imimiselo karhulumente ephelelisa ngayo (okanye kule meko, gcwalisa iphulo elishiywe ngu-$5] ukhuseleko lwenkululeko yabemi.

Utshintsho Lobulungisa

Ukwenziwa komgaqo-siseko wesizwe kukwahambisele phambili utshintsho lomthetho-mthetho. Iinkundla ezininzi zelizwe ziye zasebenzisa umgaqo-siseko wazo ukulinganisela ibheyile yemali, ukuqinisekisa iimvavanyo ezikhawulezayo, nokukhusela amalungelo abamangalelwa ngaphaya kobuncinane borhulumente. Umgaqo-siseko weIllinois, umzekelo, utolikiwe ukuqinisekisa ilungelo lokuchongwa kwasekuqaleni kwiimeko ezimaxongo, ukhuseleko olunganikelwayo kwinkqubo karhulumente.

Utshintsho lwe-Bail luye lwayindawo esebenzayo ngokukhethekileyo. Amazwe afana neNew York ne-New Jersey aye aguqula iinkqubo zawo zebheyile ngotshintsho lomthetho olusekelwe kwimigaqo yomgaqo-siseko ekwimeko efanayo yokhuseleko kunye nenkqubo efanelekileyo. Kwezinye iimeko, iinkundla zelizwe ziye zafuna utshintsho olusekelwe kulwimi olusemthethweni oluthintela ibheyile egqithisileyo okanye olufuna ukuba ibheyile ibekwe kuphela xa kuyimfuneko ukuqinisekisa ukubuyela kommangalelwa enkundleni.

Ikamva Lomthetho WomGaqo-siseko KaRhulumente Kuhlanga Olutshintshayo

Indima yomgaqo-siseko karhulumente ekukhuseleni inkululeko yabemi idla ngokukhula ngokubaluleka njengoko iinkundla zephondo zilwahlulwa ngokweengcamango kwaye njengoko iBhunga lihlala lingasebenzi kwimibandela emininzi yamalungelo abantu. Imithetho-siseko karhulumente inika abemi indlela yokukhusela amalungelo angakhuselekanga ngokwaneleyo kumgangatho karhulumente. Inyathelo lomthetho nezicelo zemithetho esemthethweni kumazwe aqengqelekayo ziya kuqhubeka zivavanya imida yomthetho-siseko.

Imibandela yokuqukumbela iquka ilungelo lokuzimela ngamanani, ukukhusela ekukhetheni imigaqo-nkqubo, izindlu ezinokufikeleleka, kunye nokufikelela kwempilo. Ngoxa umGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. unika isiseko esizinzileyo kodwa esisikelwe umda, imimiselo yemithetho-siseko isenokutshintshwa ngamanyathelo abemi ukucombulula iingxaki ezintsha ngokukhawuleza. Oku kusabela kwenza ukuba umgaqo-siseko wesizwe ufaneleke ngokukhethekileyo ukukhusela inkululeko yoluntu kwiindawo apho ubugcisa nezithethe zentlalo zithe gqolo-jinga ngokukhawuleza.

Abaphengululi abasemthethweni baye baphawula umdla okhulayo koko abanye bakubiza ngokuba "burhulumente obuthe tyaba," apho amaphondo akhangela kumgaqo-siseko womnye kunye nezigqibo zenkundla ukuze afumane ukhokelo, kudala ukukhuselwa okunqamlezileyo kwamalungelo. Xa elinye ilizwe liqala ukukhusela amalungelo. Xa elinye ilizwe ngokhuseleko olutsha lomgaqo-siseko, abanye balandela, nto leyo ekhokelela ekunyusweni kwemilinganiselo ngokuthe ngcembe kwilizwe lonke nangaphandle kwesenzo sikarhulumente.

Isiphelo

Umgaqo-siseko wezorhulumente asingobugcisa nje bembali okanye amaxwebhu olawulo; zizixhobo eziphilayo zokukhusela amalungelo ezixhasa umGaqo-siseko wesizwe ngeendlela ezinzulu. Ngoxa umGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. umisela umgangatho wenkululeko yabemi esebenzayo kulo lonke ilizwe, imimiselo yamazwe yakhela kweso siseko imigaqo-siseko enxulumene nemilinganiselo neemfuno zabemi bawo. Ukusuka kumalungelo obuqu kunye nezobume bendalo ukuya kuvota ukufikelela nenkululeko yokuzala, imiqathango yemithetho iye yaba zizixhobo eziyimfuneko ekukhuliseni nasekulondolozeni inkululeko yomntu ngamnye.

Kubafundisi-mfundo, abafundi, kunye nabemi abatshatiweyo, ukuqonda ukusetyenziswa komthetho-siseko worhulumente noworhulumente kubaluleke kakhulu ekuqondeni ubukhulu benkululeko yabemi baseMerika. UmGaqo-siseko wesizwe unika isiseko, kodwa imigaqo-siseko yorhulumente inika inxalenye enkulu yamalungelo. Njengoko ingxoxo yesizwe ngamalungelo iqhubeka iguquka, isithethe somGaqo-siseko sorhulumente siya kuhlala siyindlela ebalulekileyo yokukhusela inkululeko echaza idemokhrasi yaseMelika.

Ukufundwa okubhekele phaya ngalo mxholo, oovimba abasuka [[FLT:] Brennan Center yeJaji banika uhlalutyo olubanzi lwezigqibo zenkundla yenkundla kunye nophuhliso lomgaqo-siseko. Ingqungquthela yesizwe yeLegislatures[ inika uhlaziyo kwinkciso-ziphelo zemithetho-siseko kunye namanyathelo ebhalothi. Ngokuthelekisa, i-Cornell Legister Information Institute iqumsstele ugcino olubanzi lwesiseko somthetho-siseko somthetho kunye nomthetho onxulumene.